Low-income Families Research Articles

The expanded Child Tax Credit and low-income families’ food insecurity: Associations across and within months of receipt

In response to the pandemic-induced economic crisis for U.S. families, the federal government expanded the Child Tax Credit (CTC) via the distribution of monthly payments in the second half of 2021. Studies have found that these monthly payments corresponded with reductions in food insecurity, but what is not yet clear is whether these declines were stable across and within the months of receipt. Using novel, daily survey data among a sample of low-income families at high risk of food insecurity (N = 146), we tested whether the CTC payments were associated with stable rates of day-to-day food security. We found consistent declines in food insecurity across CTC months, though smaller declines for Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) recipients who experienced lower food insecurity rates, on average. Within a CTC month, we found that food insecurity was stable for non-SNAP families for the first few weeks, but spiked in the week prior to the next payment. SNAP families’ within-month patterns of food insecurity, however, appeared to be tied more to their SNAP benefit timing than CTC payment timing. Both groups saw end-of-the-month spikes in food insecurity among those who received higher CTC amounts, suggesting the money may have been more difficult to stretch across families with a greater number of children. These results suggest that the effectiveness of cash payments like the CTC in reducing economic hardships may depend on family characteristics like receipt of other federal benefits and household size. Accordingly, future provisions of cash assistance may benefit from going beyond income alone and tailoring the amount to a family’s benefits package.

The Quality of Life in Patients with Familial Mediterranean Fever and Their Parents Perception.

Familial Mediterranean fever (FMF) is a chronic disease characterized by recurrent episodes of fever and polyserositis. This study aimed to assess children's quality of life (QoL), as reported by children and their parents, and to compare the results according to clinical variables. The study examined 107 children with FMF, evaluating their demographic and genetic data, utilizing the Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory (PedsQL) to assess QoL, and comparing scores based on disease severity. The severity of FMF is inversely correlated with QoL scores, with mild cases having the highest scores (97±4), followed by moderate (76±11) and severe cases (52±10.3) (p<0,001). Disease severity, treatment adherence, healthcare utilization, genetic mutations, family income, and maternal age at birth all significantly impact perceived quality of life in FMF patients (p<0,001). Additionally, parents reported lower QoL for children with FMF who experienced various adverse factors such as low family income, household smoking, frequent attacks, hospitalizations, irregular medication use, and low maternal education levels (p<0,001). Children's daily activities, academic performance, and family functioning are all significantly impacted by FMF. Physicians caring for patients with FMF should be aware of the QoL changes in the management of these patients. As a result, medical therapy, patient education, and indicators of psychological and social support can all be offered more effectively.

Impact of Instagram on Financial Self-Perception A Study of Pakistani Adolescents

This study investigates the connection between Instagram use and feelings of financial inadequacy among Pakistani adolescents. As digital mediaplatforms progressively permeate daily life, their effect on users' self-perception and financial outlook has turned into a critical area of exploration. Thispaper focuses on Instagram, a platform known for its visual-driven content that frequently exhibits material riches and lavish ways of life.Using a quantitative approach, a survey was conducted and distributed among 50 adolescents from ages 15-19 from different socio-economicbackgrounds living in Lahore, Pakistan. The findings uncover a strong correlation between Instagram use and feeling of financial inadequacy.Adolescents who had lower family income were more likely to feel financially inadequate. Data also showed that adolescents also use Instagram toavoid personal problems and it further explained how content depicting wealth and peer comparison on Instagram worsen these sentiments of financial inadequacy. The research highlights the requirement for mindfulness and potential interventions to moderate the unfavorable mental effects of socialmedia on young users in developing countries.

Delaying retirement, income distribution and economic growth

In order to investigate whether postponing retirement age contributes to fostering shared prosperity, we develop a dynamic general equilibrium model incorporating delayed retirement dynamics alongside survival probabilities and heterogeneous human capital distribution across generations. This framework provides a comprehensive assessment regarding how postponing retirement age policies affect both income inequality and economic growth dimensions. Theoretical analysis reveals disparities between low- and high-income group investments in their offspring's education as well as savings behavior. Specifically observed are heightened educational investments by lower income households compared to their affluent counterparts leading to relatively accelerated growth rates for lower income family offsprings' human capital; consequently narrowing intergenerational wealth gaps thus mitigating overall income inequalities. Furthermore,the influence exerted by postponed retirements upon economic expansion hinges largely upon its relative impacts on household educational investments vis-a-vis parental human capital accumulation.Finally, numerical simulations demonstrate that within plausible parameter ranges, pushing back retirements could indeed stimulate economic advancement.

Factors Associated with Malnutrition Among Pregnant Women and Lactating Mothers in AJK, Pakistan

Background: Malnutrition during pregnancy and lactation is a major public health issue in developing countries like Pakistan. This study aims to assess the prevalence and factors associated with malnutrition among pregnant women and lactating mothers in Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJK), Pakistan. Methodology: A cross-sectional study was conducted from January to December 2022 among 300 pregnant women and lactating mothers in the district Poonch of AJK. Data were collected through a semi-structured questionnaire. Anthropometric measurements, including height, weight, and mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC), were taken. BMI and MUAC were used to assess nutritional status. Results: The prevalence of malnutrition was 39% according to BMI (&lt;18.5 kg/m²) and 46% according to MUAC (&lt;21 cm). Significant factors associated with malnutrition included illiteracy (AOR: 2.7, 95% CI: 1.4-5.2), low family income (AOR: 2.1, 95% CI: 1.2-3.8), rural residence (AOR: 3.2, 95% CI: 1.7-6.1), food insecurity (AOR: 4.6, 95% CI: 2.4-8.9), and lack of antenatal care (AOR: 2.3, 95% CI: 1.2-4.5). Conclusion: Malnutrition is alarmingly high among pregnant and lactating women in AJK. Improving female literacy, socioeconomic status, and antenatal care coverage are recommended to address this public health issue.

Multiple-component interventions to increase rotavirus vaccine uptake in children: a randomised controlled trial

Rotavirus vaccine has not been included in the Hong Kong Government's Childhood Immunisation Programme. This randomised controlled trial examined whether a simple intervention package can increase rotavirus vaccine uptake in Hong Kong children. Postpartum mothers were recruited from two public hospitals in Hong Kong and randomly allocated into three groups using block randomisation, with block sizes kept unknown to investigators and research staff. Control-subjects received public rotavirus information. Subjects in intervention group 1 additionally received: key rotavirus information with a hyperlink to a webpage showing private clinics providing rotavirus vaccines and guidance on searching the clinics, and vaccination reminders. Subjects in intervention group 2 received the same intervention as group 1, plus tokens to receive free rotavirus vaccines at specific health centres. Rotavirus vaccination status was collected when children were approximately 8 months old. Maternal attitudes towards rotavirus vaccine were assessed at enrolment and at the end of the study. This trial has been registered in the Chinese Clinical Trial Register (Ref.:ChiCTR2000039791). From 16 February to 30 July 2021, 788 eligible mothers were recruited and randomly allocated to control group (n=263), intervention group 1 (n=263), and intervention group 2 (n=262). The full intervention package (intervention group 2 relative to control group) increased rotavirus vaccine uptake by 1.7 times (95% confidence interval [CI]=1.49-1.97) or by 33 percent-points (from 48% to 81% uptake). Provision of key rotavirus information with vaccination reminders (intervention group 1 relative to control group) and removal of financial barrier (intervention group 2 relative to intervention group 1) increased uptake by 1.17 times (95% CI=0.99-1.38) or 8 percent-points, and by 1.46 times (95% CI=1.29-1.66) or 25 percent-points, respectively. A multiple-component intervention package, and in particular providing free vaccine, could increase the uptake of rotavirus vaccine in Hong Kong children. The impact of the intervention package was greatest in low-income families, emphasising the importance of removing financial barriers to vaccination to promote equity. Incorporating rotavirus vaccine into the routine CIP could further protect more young children from rotavirus infection and improve equity. This work was supported by the Health and Medical Research Fund by the Health Bureau, Government of Hong Kong SAR [Ref.: 19180202].

Understanding the relationship between intergenerational mobility and community violence

Violence is a key mechanism in the reproduction of community disadvantage. The existing evidence indicates that violence in a community impacts the intergenerational mobility of its residents. The current study explores the possibility of a reverse relationship. This study provisionally tests the hypothesis that depressed intergenerational mobility in a community may also spark subsequent community violence. We deploy a county measure of intergenerational mobility captured during early adulthood for a cohort of youth born between 1980 and 1986 and raised in low-income families [R. Chetty, N. Hendren, Quart. J. Econom. 133, 1163-1228 (2018)]. We model the relationship between county mobility scores and two county-level outcomes: violent crime and homicide. We find that a county's level of intergenerational mobility as measured by the Chetty-Hendren data is a major predictor of its rate of violent crime and homicide in 2008, when the youth in Chetty's mobility cohort were young adults (the same age the mobility measure was captured). In fact, mobility is a significantly stronger and more consistent predictor of community violent crime and homicide rates than more commonly used factors like poverty, inequality, unemployment, and law enforcement presence.

Child Home Safety in Hispanic and Rural Communities Along the Texas–Mexico Border: A Community Health Worker Intervention

Low-income children are among the most affected by unintentional injuries. Although these injuries are preventable, outreach to low-income families in Hispanic and rural communities can be challenging. Community Health Workers (CHWs) are effective partners in reaching these populations. This study sought to determine whether a CHW-led intervention would reduce common hazards that increase the risk of unintentional injuries in low-income rural Hispanic homes along the Texas–Mexico border. CHWs conducted home visits to assess for injury hazards and distribute safety devices to 47 families with children ages 0 to 5 in five low-income rural border communities. CHWs provided follow-up assessments and support 30 days later. Analyses examined changes in the proportion of hazards from visits 1 to 2, with relative risks estimating the impact of safety devices on hazard reduction. Findings showed a 26.2% reduction in the total number of common hazards present in homes from visit 1 to visit 2 ( p &lt; .001). There was a 70% reduction in the overall risk of a hazard being present at visit 2, relative to visit 1 ( relative risk = 0.30, 95% CI [0.28, 0.33], p &lt; .001). This study suggests that tailored CHW interventions can reduce home safety hazards. CHWs are well suited to inform hard-to-reach Hispanic and rural populations, addressing feelings of distrust and promoting acceptance of recommended environmental changes. More rigorous evaluations of this intervention strategy are needed.

Comparison of Demographics Across the Burn, Spinal Cord Injury, and Traumatic Brain Injury Model Systems

ObjectiveTo analyze the demographic profiles of participants in the traumatic brain injury, burn injury, and spinal cord injury model systems databases. DesignData from the Burn Model System (BMS), Traumatic Brain Injury Model System (TBIMS), and Spinal Cord Injury Model System (SCIMS) National Databases were analyzed from 1994-2020. SettingNot applicable. ParticipantsThe study included participants aged ≥16 years (N=42,407) with available data in selected variables, totaling 4807 burn injury, 19,127 TBI, and 18,473 SCI participants. InterventionsNot applicable. Main Outcome MeasuresVariables including age, race, ethnicity, sex, education level, primary payor source, family income level, employment status at 1 year postinjury, etiology, and mortality at 1 year postinjury were analyzed across the database. ResultsMedian ages at injury for BMS (40.4y), TBIMS (40y), and SCIMS (38y) National Database participants were comparable. Men constituted approximately 75% of participants in the BMS, TBIMS, and SCIMS datasets, with approximately 75% having a high-school education or less. The proportion of participants funded by Medicare during initial hospital care varied across the BMS (14%), TBIMS (15.6%), and SCIMS (10.2%). For family income (data available for BMS and SCIMS), approximately 30% of these participants reported a family income <$25,000. Etiology data indicated 49.0% of traumatic brain injury and 40.7% of spinal cord injury cases resulted from vehicular incidents. ConclusionsAn overlapping at-risk population for these injuries appears to be middle-aged men with lower education levels and family incomes who have access to vehicles. This underscores the need for preventive initiatives tailored to this identified population to mitigate the risk of these injuries.

The COVID-19 Pandemic and Family Economic Well-being: Evidence from the Survey of Consumer Finances

The COVID-19 pandemic caused severe disruptions to the U.S. labor market and economic activity. We establish connections between family experiences of the pandemic, their income under normal conditions, and their later economic well-being using the 2022 Survey of Consumer Finances. By their interview, one-third of families experienced net employment declines, one-third had teleworked, and one-fifth had significant COVID-19-related health events. These experiences strongly reflected families’ positions in the income distribution, with lower-income families bearing the brunt. They also tightly predict income and wealth after the initial disruptions, signifying that the pandemic economy likely amplified pre-pandemic differences and fostered new divides.

Korean Early Childhood Education and Care Panel Study: Data Utilization Strategies for Policy and Practice

The Korean Early Childhood Education and Care Panel Study (K-ECEC panel study), commencing in 2021, aimed to collect data related to early life growth and development. In particular, based on Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model, the study aims to collect intrinsic and extrinsic parental factors, educational and caregiving experiences in institutions, and environmental factors from the prenatal stage through infancy, toddlerhood, and early childhood. This is important for understanding child development with varied dimensional aspects. The K-ECEC panel study uses a stratified sampling strategy in order to recruit pregnant women based on regions and numbers of deliveries to individual hospitals. This resulted in the participation of 3,372 women, 95 of whom were from low-income families and 72 from multicultural families. The K-ECEC panel study is based on a household survey collecting information related to pregnancy, birth, and childrearing. The survey included an annual follow-up for individual households of newborns from 2022, and the second round of the survey was conducted in 2023. A total of 2,775 children participated in the first round of the survey, 1,423 of whom were boys. As there are few birth cohort studies considering policy-oriented aspects in Korea, the K-ECEC panel study is expected to provide data to understand childhood trajectories for growth and development. Furthermore, in terms of childcare and education, it is expected to be utilized to evaluate the policy effects of early life and parenting support.

Violence and its related factors among infertile women attending assisted reproductive technique unit at Al-Azhar University, Cairo

BackgroundViolence against women is a distressing issue particularly when they are infertile. Nevertheless, many women who are infertile and exposed to violence continue their marriage and justify such choice.AimThe current study aimed to assess the prevalence of violence against infertile women and its associated factors.Participants and methodsThis cross-sectional study involved 364 Egyptian women with primary infertility; they were randomly selected from the assisted reproductive technique unit of Al-Azhar University’s International Islamic Center for Population Studies and Research. The data were collected through an interview questionnaire including the Infertile Women’s Exposure to Violence Determination Scale (IWEVDS), socio-demographic, conception, and community-related factors.ResultsModerate/high violence level was detected among 50.5% (95% CI = 45.3- 55.8%) of the studied infertile women, the mean ± SD of total score of IWEVDS was 48.27 ± 21.6. Exclusion was the most frequent type of violence among them. Binary logistic regression revealed that wives who had lower-educated husbands, lived in low-income families, had undergone prior IVF treatment, and who perceived gender inequality acceptance in society were more likely to expose to violence than others (OR = 3.76, 4.25, 2.05, and 2.08 respectively) (P value < 0.05).Conclusion and recommendationsInfertile women have frequent exposure to different types of violence and many factors were implicated in such condition. Despite exposure to violence, infertile women refused divorce because they had no alternative financial sources as well as they were afraid of loneliness. A community mobilization approach to control this problem through a collaboration of all stakeholders is recommended.

Examining Food Access Equity by Integrating Grocery Store Pricing into Spatial Accessibility Measures

Accessibility to food stores offering nutritious and affordable options is critical to ensure urban residents lead healthy lives. However, the uneven distribution of diverse food options in U.S. cities has raised concerns about marginalized communities’ ability to obtain affordable and nutritious food. Transportation-related issues, like car-oriented urban form and sprawl, have created food deserts in cities, making it hard for marginalized communities to access affordable and healthy food. This lack of access has recently drawn the attention of urban planners to address food access-related equity issues. Spatial interaction models can help measure food access by examining how grocery store supply, demand, and proximity affect individuals’ access to necessary food. However, these measures do not always consider the pricing of food items, which can significantly affect food access for low-income individuals and families. We use a highly disaggregated measure tailored to measuring inequitable food accessibility by factoring grocery store pricing into various types of supply and demand. Then, using regional socio-demographic thresholds, we identify target population groups and perform a series of equity analyses using our food accessibility measure. Our results show that walking is more inequitable than driving to food stores and that African American and Hispanic minorities, the elderly, and carless households are more burdened than the reference groups (whites). Using our framework, we identify food deserts and provide spatial and empirical insights for policymakers and planners to address food insecurity and promote equitable access to healthy food.

Upward Bound Program Supports Success of Low-Income and/or First-Generation College Students at a STEM-Focused HSI

A deeper understanding of low-income and first-generation college student experiences is essential to advancing diversity and equity in higher education. Due to a significant gap in college enrollment and graduation rates for low-income and first-generation college students, specifically after COVID-19, it is important to identify factors affecting their success. The Upward Bound Math and Science (UBMS) Program at New Mexico Tech (NMT) supports high school students who are either first-generation college students and/or from low-income families to prepare them with the skills and motivation necessary to complete high school and enter and succeed in a program of postsecondary education. These students face unique challenges during their time at college. To identify the factors that affect the success of these students, we surveyed several of our UBMS program participants who chose to attend NMT after completing high school. All participants said support from UBMS staff was critical when starting college at NMT. Participants also mention building a support system with their fellow UBMS alumni to deal with the struggles that being at STEM-focused institutions brings. This study also resulted in several suggestions for faculty and staff members to improve academic outcomes for all students.

Faktor-Faktor yang Berhubungan dengan Status Gizi pada Remaja di SMP Negeri 262 Jakarta Timur Tahun 2024

Teenagers are a group that is easily influenced by external cultural influences because they are going through a period of searching for theirs identify. Nutritional status is the condition of the body as a result of the food consumed every day. The aim of this research was to determine factors related to nutritional status in students at SMP Negeri 262 East Jakarta. The type of research that will be used is quantitative research with a cross sectional design. Data collection was carried out by direct measurement with a weight scale, microtoise. The sampling technique in this research used Proportional Random Sampling with a total population of 452 students at SMP Negeri 262 Jakarta, classes VII and VIII, and the sample taken was 156 students. The analysis that will be used includes univariat analysis and bivariate analysis, while the statistical test used is the chi square test. Univariate results showed that 58,3% of teenager’s had poor nutritional status, 73,7% of teenager’s had low family income, 55,1% of teenager’s feel dissatisfied, and 62,8% of teenager’s have insufficient nutritional knowledge. The result of statistical test show that there is a significant relationship between maternal education p value (0,002) and body image p value (0,007) with nutritional status in adolescents. Meanwhile, the variable that did not have a significant relationship were the family income variables p value (1,000), physical activity p value (0,359), nutritional knowledge p value (0,117).

Predictors of return to work among postoperative patients with colorectal cancer.

To describe the status of return to work and identify predictors of return to work among Chinese postoperative patients with colorectal cancer. A cross-sectional study. Conducted in two tertiary hospitals in China. A total of 210 postoperative patients with colorectal cancer were included in the study. Two hundred and ten postoperative patients with colorectal cancer who were working at the time of their diagnosis were assessed with the Perceived Social Support Scale, the Return-To-Work Self-Efficacy Questionnaire, Kessler Psychological Distress Scale, Cancer Fatigue Scale, and Social Impact Scale. Descriptive statistics, univariate logistic regression analysis, and multivariate logistic regression analysis were used for data analysis in SPSS 26.0. Around a third of participants (n = 74, 35.2%) returned to work after surgery. Multiple stepwise regression analysis indicated that more family income (odds ratio (OR) = 5.769, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.666-19.972), time span after surgery 5-10 months, and ≥10 months (OR = 3.546, 95% CI = 1.084-11.598; OR = 3.077, 95% CI = 1.074-8.818), with a stoma (OR = 0.221, 95% CI = 0.075-0.653), psychological distress (OR = 0.912, 95% CI = 0.843-0.987), cancer fatigue (OR = 0.924, 95% CI = 0.872-0.978), and stigma (OR = 0.928, 95% CI = 0.886-0.971) were significantly associated with return to work. A high proportion of patients with colorectal cancer did not return to work within 1 year after diagnosis. Those with shorter postoperative time, lower family income, stoma, greater psychological stress, higher level of cancer fatigue, and more stigma may have a higher risk in delayed work resumption.

Feasibility Study of a Mobile Health Parenting Intervention Among Somali/Somali Americans From Refugee Families in the United States

Mobile health parenting interventions often do not account for inequities in parenting education and health resources for racial minority, refugee, and low-income families. We examined the feasibility of a mobile health intervention to address maternal and child wellness needs in Somali/Somali Americans from refugee families. Using a community-engaged research approach, our interdisciplinary academic team, in collaboration with Somali/Somali American community members, healthcare providers, and state, county, and local health officials, developed a culturally sensitive audio-based messaging intervention. The messages contained four topics (parent–child relationships, child nutrition, child health, and maternal self-care) and were delivered in an audio-based format upon the community’s needs. Forty-six Somali/Somali American parents ( Mage = 31) participated in the feasibility study, and 12 parents provided feedback. Based on thematic analysis, Somali/Somali American parents found the content and delivery style helpful in caring for their children and themselves and expressed interest in continuing this intervention. We discuss the implications for using mobile health interventions to address health inequities in marginalized communities.

When One Is Not Enough: Exploring the Intersection of Multiple Public Benefits and Multiple Material Hardships in Low-Income Single-Mother Families

When One Is Not Enough: Exploring the Intersection of Multiple Public Benefits and Multiple Material Hardships in Low-Income Single-Mother Families

Oral Health-related Quality of Life of Children with Special Health Care Needs in Riyadh: A Cross-sectional Study.

To assess children's OHRQoL and associated factors among a sample of children with special needs in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. A sample of 6- to 12-year-old children was obtained using convenience sampling from rehabilitation centers. Data were collected through a questionnaire and dental examination. The questionnaire included items related to the children's and their families' characteristics, oral health-related quality of life scales (Parental-Caregivers Perceptions Questionnaire [P-CPQ] and Family Impact Scale [FIS]), perceived health status, and dental care utilisation. Clinical examination was performed by a trained and calibrated dentist. The data were analysed using SPSS; descriptive and inferential data analyses were also performed using SPSS. The mean P-CPQ was 1.10 ± 0.74, and the mean FIS was 1.39 ± 0.88. There was a statistically significant correlation between P-CPQ and caries (r = 0.36, p = 0.02). After controlling for confounders, caries was associated with poor P-CPQ (B = 0.06, p = 0.024). Compared to low-income families, higher-income families had better P-CPQ (4000-8000 SAR: B = -1.36, p = 0.001). Poor oral health-related quality of life in Saudi children is associated with caries and low income. Preventive measures addressing social determinants are vital to control caries and promote oral health in children with special health-care needs.

Economic and social impact of affordable housing policies: A comparative review

Affordable housing policies play a pivotal role in shaping the economic and social landscapes of nations, especially in the context of growing urbanization and income inequality. This comparative review examines the economic and social impacts of various affordable housing policies across different countries, providing a comprehensive analysis of their effectiveness and broader implications. Economic impacts of affordable housing policies are multifaceted, influencing job creation, economic growth, and household stability. By increasing the supply of affordable housing, these policies can stimulate construction and related industries, leading to significant job creation and economic activity. Affordable housing also enhances household stability by reducing housing costs, allowing for greater disposable income and increased consumer spending. This review explores how policies such as tax incentives, subsidies, and inclusionary zoning have been utilized to promote affordable housing development and their resultant economic benefits. Social impacts of affordable housing policies are equally significant, affecting community cohesion, health outcomes, and educational attainment. Stable and affordable housing contributes to improved mental and physical health by reducing stress and exposure to poor living conditions. Furthermore, it enhances educational outcomes for children by providing a stable home environment conducive to learning. This review discusses policies such as rent control, public housing initiatives, and housing vouchers, highlighting their role in fostering social inclusion and reducing disparities. Case studies from diverse regions, including the United States, Singapore, and Brazil, illustrate the varied approaches and outcomes of affordable housing policies. In the United States, the Low-Income Housing Tax Credit (LIHTC) program has been instrumental in increasing affordable housing supply and promoting economic development in underserved areas. Singapore's Housing and Development Board (HDB) has successfully provided high-quality, affordable housing to a majority of its population, significantly enhancing social stability. Brazil's Minha Casa Minha Vida program showcases how large-scale public housing initiatives can address housing deficits and improve living standards for low-income families. The review concludes that while affordable housing policies have distinct economic and social impacts, their success largely depends on contextual factors such as policy design, implementation strategies, and local economic conditions. Policymakers must consider these factors to create effective and sustainable housing solutions that promote both economic prosperity and social well-being. Keywords: Economic, Social: Impact, Affordable Housing, Policies.