False Belief Research Articles

The Diagnostic Workup, Screening, and Treatment Approaches for Patients with Delusional Infestation.

Delusional infestation (DI) is a psychiatric disorder defined by the fixed, false belief that one has been infested by an organism without evidence to support this. Patients may present with skin lesions and report abnormal cutaneous sensations. The diagnostic workup for patients presenting with delusional infestation is essential to ensuring accurate diagnosis in ruling out other explanations for symptoms and investigating potential secondary causes of DI. In addition to a comprehensive history and physical examination, laboratory workup should be considered depending on the clinical picture. Antipsychotic medications are the most common drugs used in management of adults with DI and tailor the choice of treatment according to patient characteristics. This article serves as a guide for dermatologists, psychiatrists, and other clinicians as it reviews the workup and screening that should be considered when managing a patient with delusional infestation and subsequent treatment protocols once the diagnosis has been made.

How social media users become misinformed: The roles of news-finds-me perception and misinformation exposure in COVID-19 misperception

This study explores the role of the news-finds-me (NFM) perception—the belief that people can be well-informed without actively seeking news due to their social networks—in fostering social media users’ inaccurate beliefs about COVID-19. Findings from a US national survey ( N = 1003) suggest that NFM perception is positively associated with belief in COVID-19 misinformation and mediates the positive relationship between social media use and false beliefs when NFM is measured as a single-dimensional construct. However, the sub-dimensions of NFM have distinct implications: The reliance on peers and not seeking but feeling informed dimensions work in the same manner as when NFM is treated as a single-dimensional construct, whereas reliance on algorithmic news negatively predicts belief in misinformation and negatively mediates the aforementioned relationship. We also found the mediating role of exposure to misinformation in the relationship between social media use and false beliefs. Implications from these findings are discussed.

Модель психического и макиавеллизм как факторы внутригрупповых отношений в подростковом возрасте

<p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Objective. </strong>Analysis of differences in social cognition skills (theory of mind) and Machiavellianism in adolescents with different levels of popularity and preference among peers. <br><strong>Background. </strong>Despite the possible consensus on the positive relationship of high social cognition skills and successful socialization, it remains important to study how theory of mind and manipulative behavior are involved in the popularity and social preferences of adolescents. <br><strong>Study design. </strong>The paper studied the differences in the theory of mind and Machiavellianism in adolescents with different levels of popularity and social preference in the peer group. Statistical differences were tested using non-parametric differences tests. <br><strong>Participants. </strong>166 students (grades 6–8) from schools in the Moscow region. Age from 13 to 14 years (<em>M</em> = 13,39; <em>SD</em> = 0,49), including 90 girls (54,2%). <br><strong>Measurements. </strong>Theory of mind was assessed using the "Reading the Mind in the Eyes" test and tasks for understanding false believes of a higher order. The Russian-language version of the Mach scale is IV. Sociometric method. <br><strong>Results. </strong>Adolescents choose peers with high social cognition skills as friends. Machiavellianism plays into the evaluation of popularity and social preference by peers. Adolescents with a higher level of Machiavellianism are rated by their peers as more popular and preferred for communication. <br><strong>Conclusions. </strong>Popular teens and teens chosen to socialize differ in social cognition and machiavellian skills.</p>

Larger corpus callosum volume is favorable for theory of mind development in healthy children.

While previous research has demonstrated a link between the corpus callosum (CC) and theory of mind (ToM) abilities in individuals with corpus callosum agenesis (ACC), the relationship between CC volume and ToM remains unclear in healthy children. The present study examined whether CC volume influences children's performance on ToM tasks that assess their understanding of pretense, emotion recognition, and false beliefs. Forty children aged 6-12years underwent structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and a cognitive test battery. We found that larger mid-anterior and central subsections of the CC significantly correlated with better ToM abilities. We could also demonstrate age- and sex-related effects, as the CC-ToM relationship differed between younger (6-8years) and older (9-12years) children, and between female and male participants. Importantly, the older children drove the association between the CC mid-anterior and central subsection volumes and ToM abilities. This study is the first to demonstrate that CC size is associated with ToM abilities in healthy children, underlining the idea that the CC plays a vital role in their socio-cognitive development. CC subsection volumes may thus not only serve as a measure of heterogeneity in neurodevelopmental populations known to exhibit socio-cognitive deficits, but also in typically developing children.

Myths, Fallacies and "Machismo" Prejudices in the Practice of Sex: A Study on Attitudes and Knowledge for Sexual Life in a Large Spanish Sample

Abstract Introduction Many of the sexual problems of the couples that come to psychology and sexology consultations are due to erroneous beliefs surrounding the topic of sex. Beliefs that have been turned into widespread sexual myths and fallacies in society. In this study, we conducted a survey on knowledge and fallacies related to sexual intercourse with a large Spanish random sample. Our aim was to evaluate the presence of these fallacies and myths in today's modern society. Methods A total of 1162 participants of different genders (female, male, and non-binary), different sexual orientation (mostly heterosexual) and different ages (from 14 –two cases- to 64 with mean of 24.62 and SD of 8.96), answered an online questionnaire, developed ad hoc for this study, during the years 2019, 2020 and 2021. This questionnaire or survey collects the different fallacies, myths and “machismo” attitudes collected in clinical practice (psychology/sexology) that have caused couples or individuals to request professional therapeutic help, as well as knowledge related to sexual practices. Results The results show that the current level of knowledge is in general good (between 99 and 73% of adequate responses, with some exceptions mainly related to anatomy), higher among women (reaching their highest percentage of correct answers at 99%) than men (reaching their highest percentage of correct answers at 97%), and independent of age. In addition, we observe the weight and relationship that certain myths and traditional cultural fallacies have, as well as the presence of false expectations and beliefs about what the "ideal" sexual relationship should be, which are still very present in modern Spanish society, and which are responsible for the majority of clinical consultations and alleged disorders related to couples’ sexual life. Conclusions These myths, false beliefs, and unrealistic expectations, as well as the subtle attitudes of "machismo" (that people are not aware that they possess), must be combated (information, campaigns) since they are responsible for many of the apparent disorders and dysfunctions in the human sexual response (which are mostly attributed to women), and in the sexual life, in general, of couples. Policy Implications This study presents the level that these fallacies and negative attitudes are present in a large sample in Spain, and the questionnaire developed will allow evaluating the level of presence of these fallacies and negative attitudes, both in different societies/ groups and in particular individuals. Information that will be of great help to professional therapists who treat dysfunctions and sexual problems in couple/marital life, which are based on these fallacies, on attitudes of “machismo” and/or on the lack of knowledge on the one's own sex and that of their partner.

Apology for an Average Believer: Wagered Belief and Information Environments

ABSTRACT Some persons who believe provably false claims – such as that there were significant voter irregularities in the 2020 election – may nevertheless be evidentially rational for holding their false beliefs. I consider a person I call our average believer. In her daily life, she incidentally gathers evidence favoring the hypothesis that there were significant voter irregularities, but she does not investigate the matter. Her information environment, moreover, is such that it accidentally (through no fault of her own) excludes counterevidence to the thesis that there were such irregularities and intensifies the flow of information that there were irregularities. As a consequence, she becomes convinced that there were significant voting irregularities in the 2020 U.S. election. I argue that while she is not zetetically rational, for she does not investigate the matter, she is evidentially rational in that she apportions her belief to the evidence. While she has no right to the Cliffordian, or assertoric, belief that there were such irregularities, she is not epistemically blameworthy for having the wagered belief it is true.

Emotion recognition and false belief in deaf or hard-of-hearing preschool children.

This study aims to examine emotion recognition and false belief performances of 4-5-year-old (48-71months) deaf or hard-of-hearing (DHH) children. The performances have been assessed using the Turkish Version of the Theory of Mind Task Battery for Children. The DHH children have been continuing schooling in inclusive settings with an auditory-oral approach. The emotion recognition performances of hearing children (n = 100) and DHH (n = 100) children have appeared to be similar. The ANOVA analysis has revealed that the groups do not differ concerning false belief performances between the ages of 4 and 5.5. However, from the age of 5.5, hearing children have performed better than DHH children. According to correlation analysis, parental education has been determined as a remarkable factor in DHH children's false belief development. The findings point to the need for research across a wide range of ages to better understand the developmental course of false belief in DHH children.

Conjuring Up a King

Conjuring Up a King

Evidence for a Weak but Reliable Processing Advantage for False Beliefs Over Similar Nonmental States in Adults.

The ability to understand the mental states of others has sometimes been attributed to a domain-specific mechanism which privileges the processing of these states over similar but nonmental representations. If correct, then others' beliefs should be processed more efficiently than similar information contained within nonmental states. We tested this by examining whether adults would be faster to process others' false beliefs than equivalent "false" photos. Additionally, we tested whether they would be faster to process others' true beliefs about something than their own (matched) personal knowledge about the same event. Across four experiments, we found a small but reliable effect in favor of the first prediction, but no evidence for the second. Results are consistent with accounts positing specialized processes for (false) mental states. The size of the effect does, however, suggest that alternative explanations such as practice effects cannot be ruled out.

What contributes to false belief understanding in childhood? A multidimensional approach

False belief understanding (FBU), a core component of Theory of Mind (ToM), refers to the capacity to understand that other individuals act according to their beliefs even when those beliefs are inaccurate. FBU is an important aspect of socio-cognitive development in early childhood. A range of sociodemographic, temperamental, cognitive, and family factors are known to contribute separately to individual differences in FBU; however, these domains are typically studied in silos. This longitudinal study aimed to examine which of these factors are associated with FBU around the time of school entry. We evaluated 102 typically developing children at 2–5.5 years (predictive factors) and then at 4–7.5 years of age (FBU). The findings indicate that cognitive and family factors during the preschool years are associated with FBU at school entry. Specifically, child vocabulary and parent-child interaction quality were significant independent predictors of FBU.

صفتِ ’’کلام اللہ ‘‘سے متعلق سلف صالحین کے عقائدونظریات: اسلامی تعلیمات کی روشنی میں ایک مطالعہ

All the religions of the world present the concept of God, but they are unable to introduce the real God. They talk about the problems of the people, but they cannot give the true knowledge of their real creator, while on the contrary, Islam is a complete religion. Akmal is religion. It contains guidance for every corner of the life of this world and the hereafter. However, since the creation of Adam, false forces have been busy trying to create confusion and doubts in the religion of God. But despite this, from the creation of Adam until now, false forces have been busy trying to create confusion and doubts in the religion of God. This is the reason why many theologians have misled people by resorting to analogies in the attributes of Allah Ta'ala. have tried to. One of the attributes of Allah Ta'ala is to speak. In the past and present, there are many people with false beliefs and ideas who deny the attribute of Allah, ``the attribute of speech'' and by misusing the language of philosophy and logic. People of faith try to mislead people with weak faith. In the past, our predecessors rejected this theory in a comprehensive way and exposed this false thought to people that having such a belief is against the Book and Sunnah, so this in this article, the same effort of Salaf Saliheen will be explained in the light of Quran and Hadith.

ПСИХО-СЕКСУАЛЬНІ ОСНОВИ СЕКСУАЛЬНОЇ РЕАБІЛІТАЦІЇ ВІЙСЬКОВИХ, ВЕТЕРАНІВ ТА ЦИВІЛЬНИХ З ІНВАЛІДНІСТЮ

The article highlights the psycho-sexual principles of sexual rehabilitation of military personnel, veterans and civilians with acquired disabilities. In particular, foreign professional publications are analyzed, and statistical data on the level of sexual disorders or changes in people with various injuries and traumas are presented. Attention is also focused on the lack of similar publications and research in the Ukrainian-speaking professional environment. It is noted that in Ukraine, rehabilitation programs for the military and veterans practically do not address a comprehensive approach to the rehabilitation of the sexuality of traumatized persons. The concept of sexuality as a complex combination of biological, social, psychological and other factors that encompasses human existence throughout life is explored. The spheres in which sexuality is manifested and experienced in all its uniqueness and individuality are highlighted. The high clinical significance of conversations about sexuality throughout the recovery process is noted, which should include both conversations with professionals of helping professions who should initiate such discussions and conversations within a couple or in support groups. The peculiarities of the impact of disability and trauma on sexual functioning, including the influence of false beliefs that can form a prejudiced attitude towards disability and sexuality, are outlined. The author emphasizes the high level of sexual problems that arise after surgical interventions against the background of misinformation or emotional experiences. In addition, the sexual functioning of a couple with a person with a sudden disability can be affected by a set of psychosocial factors, such as changing roles in relationships, general difficulties associated with the treatment and recovery process, depression, anxiety, changes in self-esteem or fatigue. Attention is drawn to the need to rethink one's own sexuality, ideas about masculinity and femininity, the formation of new sexual scenarios that would include the fact of disability, as well as a general expansion of the view of intimacy, which would move away from the widespread perception of sex as exclusively penile-vaginal contact. The article also highlights a wide range of aspects that may require therapeutic intervention when restoring the intimate life of a person who has suddenly become disabled.

Arbitrary switching and concern for truth

This essay is about a special kind of transformative choice that plays a key role in debates about permissivism, the view that some bodies of evidence permit more than one rational response. A prominent objection to this view contends that its defender cannot vindicate our aversion to arbitrarily switching between belief states in the absence of any new evidence. A prominent response to that objection tries to provide the desired vindication by appealing to the idea that arbitrary switching would involve a special kind of transformative choice: the choice to change one’s epistemic standards, i.e., one’s commitments regarding the relative importance of achieving true belief and avoiding false belief. My first aims here are to argue that this response is unsuccessful and propose an alternative. My secondary aim is to consider how this discussion might bear on more general debates about transformative choice.

Delusional infestation: a retrospective cohort study of49patients over a 6-year period.

Delusional infestation (DI) is the fixed false belief of pathogenic infestation of the skin or body despite no supporting medical evidence. It is a relatively rare condition with a reported prevalence of 1.48 per million people. Successful treatment can be challenging as patients are often reluctant to accept referral or involvement of psychiatric services. We report a retrospective cohort study of 49 consecutive patients with a diagnosis of DI, assessed in a regional psychodermatology service over a 6-year period. Low-dose antipsychotics (risperidone or olanzapine) were prescribed in 44 patients. We use our data to explore possible reasons why DI can be challenging to treat. Response to treatment and engagement with services is multifactorial. Our study emphasizes the importance of early assessment and supports the expansion of psychodermatology services in the UK.

A Study of the Cultural Intricacies that the Students Face during Language Learning Processes

Learning strategies are selected based on insights and analysis that are based on a common global academic foundation. A set of complications negatively affect the process of receiving the applied English language and have many negative psychological and achievement effects on students, and therefore this study seeks to investigate the impact of common ideological and cultural complexities among students on learning applied English linguistics. A quantitative methodology was adopted, where a questionnaire has been distributed online among a sample of (300) teachers working in different English departments at Kurdistan/ Erbil Universities. SPSS 23 was used to evaluate the gathered replies, and the results revealed that numerous cultural complications influence students' acquisition of applied linguistics, such as the traditions and customs of eastern civilizations, which do not favour language learning. Another cultural complexity is the shyness that affects the learner when he/she practices the language in front of others. Moreover, many other erroneous ideologies affect the learning of English applied linguistics including students’ contempt for modern teaching methods of the English language, and the false belief among students that learning English is not compatible with the culture and Islamic teachings of society. Moreover, the study concluded that there is a strong negative correlation with statistical significance between the ideological and cultural complexities of students and the learning of applied English linguistics in English departments at Kurdistan University, through the analysis of statistical data. It was also found that complexities are more influential in learning applied English than cultural complexities. The researcher recommends the necessity for teachers to deal with a greater degree of awareness with the current generations in dealing with these complexities, by making the English language away from the wrong ideology recognized before, and focusing on teaching it as an important and global foreign language, and that mastering it is important in achieving development.

Normative Inference Tickets

Abstract We argue that stereotypes associated with concepts like he-said–she-said, conspiracy theory, sexual harassment, and those expressed by paradigmatic slurs provide “normative inference tickets”: conceptual permissions to automatic, largely unreflective normative conclusions. These “mental shortcuts” are underwritten by associated stereotypes. Because stereotypes admit of exceptions, normative inference tickets are highly flexible and productive, but also liable to create serious epistemic and moral harms. Epistemically, many are unreliable, yielding false beliefs which resist counterexample; morally, many perpetuate bigotry and oppression. Still, some normative inference tickets, like some activated by sexual harassment, constitute genuine moral and hermeneutical advances. For example, our framework helps explain Miranda Fricker's notion of “hermeneutical lacunae”: what early victims of “sexual harassment” – as well as their harassers – lacked before the term was coined was a communal normative inference ticket – one that could take us, collectively, from “this is happening” to “this is wrong.”

Kirlianometry of «Augmented reality» confirmed by Kirlian images to the world - through science

For hundreds of years, there have been wars on the planet Earth that continue to this day because people expect them. A shift is needed to move human consciousness where war doesn’t exist. When considering the causes of wars from the standpoint of Aurology and Aurometry, it becomes clear that the impact on people of the forces of evil has been completely neglected before the discovery of Kirlianography. Beliefs and views imposed on uneducated humanity nurtured hatred and all kinds of negative feelings. Nowadays, the insidiousness and negative influence on the consciousness of people and life itself lost their ground. Kirlianography, Kirlianometry, Aurology, and Aurometry play a vital role in this process. The photo-documentary evidence presented now gives people the opportunity to change their worldview and assess the events that are taking place from a different standpoint. The wars unleashed by the demonic hierarchies for thousands of years stem out of the complete blindness of people who had no knowledge of the Subtle World. However, at present, there are real ways to open eyes and end wars on the basis of New Knowledge. It is possible to stop these desecrating processes and save our planet by seeing and understanding the negative impact of the forces of darkness. This timely article is the voice of truth and justice. New proofs and facts presented here serve as a confirmation of our bold statement. From the standpoint of Aurology and Aurometry, the causes of wars are viewed as the unpunished influence of the forces of evil on people. False beliefs and attitudes have been imposed on uneducated humanity and nurtured hatred. The insidiousness of the demonic Hierarchy and the criminal influence on people are exposed and should be made public through documented Kirlian images. KIRLIANOGRAPHY, KIRLIANOMETRY, AUROMETRY, AND AUROLOGY are to play crucial roles. Aurology and Aurometry provide evidence to reconsider many events in life and see them in a different way - objectively - to understand the nature of events past and present.

Socio-cognitive correlates of primary school children's deceptive behavior toward peers in competitive settings

Competing for limited resources with peers is common among children from an early age, illustrating their propensity to use deceptive strategies to win. We focused on how primary school-age (6–8 years old) children's strategic deception toward peers is associated with their socio-cognitive development (theory of mind and executive functions). In a novel computerized competitive hide-and-seek game, we manipulated the peer opponents' familiarity (familiar vs. unfamiliar) and actions (following vs. not following children's indications), as well as the stimuli likability (liked vs. disliked cards). Our findings demonstrated that children deceived the familiar opponent less than the unfamiliar one, indicating their determination to preserve positive peer interactions. We showed that theory of mind and executive functions significantly predicted children's willingness to deceive. Notably, second-order false belief understanding and visuospatial working memory positively predicted children's use of truths to deceive, whereas inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility efficacy scores were negatively related to their deceptive performance when using the same strategy. Implications for children's competitive behavior toward peers involving lie-telling are discussed.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FAITH AND POLITICS IN THE FIRST PERIOD IN SALIM IBN ZEKWAN’S WORK “AS-SIRA”

In the book “as-Sira”, Salim ibn Zekwan has presented the essential codes of the Kharijites/Ibadi thought and the relationship between faith and politics in the early period. In “as – Sira” he reflected the specific examples of the Kharijites/Ibadi thought in faith and action context by using explanation of events of the time of Hazrat Osman and Hazrat Ali. Also, Salim has become one of the important figures of this thought by evaluating political events in the context of faith. Religion is one of the most effective values in the life of an individual and society. It is a motivation that influences, directs and gives enthusiasm and spirit to the individual and society. Therefore, religion does not serve any political, legal, individual and social purpose. Also, it cannot be sacrificed to a false belief or thought and fanaticism. When religious texts are taken out of their context, they can be misunderstood. One of the problematic reasons for religious fanaticism is the commentaries that contradict the purpose when they assign a meaning to divine orders and apply them to daily life. It causes chaos and discomfort trying to force your own political and intellectual views as absolute truths and imposing them on others. As a result of that people are directed to the wrong direction and purpose, they are divided, grouped, separated and become enemies to one another. Thus, religion, which its real purpose is making people live in unity, equality and sense of brotherhood, appears as a problem and chaos by being got off its point. Especially, it turns into means of violence, oppression and chaos in the hands of some malicious people. The Holy Quran has established the faith as high and sacred value principles. It invites people to believe in these values independently and gives people the freedom to accept or reject the values of Islamic faith. It does not accept any pressure or direction on this subject. Allah has not given a right to anyone or organization to make pressure or coercion in worships. The Quran has ordered Prophet Muhammad to preach revelation and not to put pressure upon this issue.

Examining the association between social media fatigue, cognitive ability, narcissism and misinformation sharing: cross-national evidence from eight countries

Several studies have explored the causes and consequences of public engagement with misinformation and, more recently, COVID-19 misinformation. However, there is still a need to understand the mechanisms that cause misinformation propagation on social media. In addition, evidence from non-Western societies remains rare. This study reports on survey evidence from eight countries to examine whether social media fatigue can influence users to believe misinformation, influencing their sharing intentions. Our insights also build on prior cognitive and personality literature by exploring how this mechanism is conditional upon users’ cognitive ability and narcissism traits. The results suggest that social media fatigue can influence false beliefs of misinformation which translates into sharing on social media. We also find that those with high levels of cognitive ability are less likely to believe and share misinformation. However, those with low cognitive ability and high levels of narcissism are most likely to share misinformation on social media due to social media fatigue. This study is one of the first to provide cross-national comparative evidence highlighting the adverse effects of social media fatigue on misinformation propagation and establishing that the relationship is not universal but dependent on both cognitive and dark personality traits of individuals.