Fair Elections Research Articles

Election Dispute Resolution and Justice as Fairness: A Study of Regional Head Elections in Indonesia

Abstract: The concept of justice is still relevant for debate, involving two political and legal perspectives. However, the two met in the context of resolving election disputes. Namely the election justice mechanism to resolve all forms of election disputes. This study will focus on resolving election result disputes, the 2020 Regional Head Election Results Dispute. John Rawls is a philosopher and political theorist who strongly influenced the tradition of justice theory. The concept of justice is offered from criticism of utilitarianism and intuitionism. Justice as fairness is a concept of justice that is procedurally fair but also justice that benefits as well as opportunities that are just (equal). Purpose: This article aims to elaborate Regional Head Election Results Dispute from Rawls’ justice as fairness approach to resolve election disputes. Design/Methodology/Approach: The research method used is qualitative research. Using a descriptive approach and literature study as data collection techniques. Findings: There is still a serious debate about achieving the concept of justice between substantive and procedural justice in electoral studies regarding the equitable settlement of election result disputes. A just Regional Head Election Results Dispute indicates the degree of democracy in implementing direct, general, free, confidential, and honest, fair elections (LUBER JURDIL). Constitutional democracy is a meeting point between Rawls' democratic tradition and Plato's nomocracy. Originality/value: Many articles on Regional Head Election Results Dispute philosophically explain Rawls’ justice as a fairness concept. However, this article explores the relationship between Regional Head Election Results Dispute phenomenon through Rawls’ philosophical concepts.

Democracy and Cultural Factors: The Case of Albania

In the context of democracy, the world is divided between nations who are thought to be democratic par excellence, while others embark on a challenging path to democracy. Albanians have sought for democracy since the fall of dictatorial regime in 1990. The pursuit of this ideal has been impaired by substantial governmental challenges in key areas of the country. Nowadays, concerns have arisen even in the most democratic countries, because of the discontent that exists among their citizens. In regions like the Balkans, a new term has emerged: “stabilitocracy”. This concept seeks to examine the complex reasons behind countries that appear to be democratic but struggle to fully embrace democratic principles. In these nations, the three fundamental pillars of democracy as the rule of law, human rights, free and fair elections, and fair representation by state authorities, remain vulnerable. However, in the Albanian context, these elements have remained unstable since the aftermath of the dictatorial regime. Scholars analyze the fact that democracy in a country is influenced by their culture and economic development. When either of those components fails to align with the democratic ideal, democracy will be at risk, or it will lead the ground for the creation of an alternative political regime. This study searches into Albania’s path towards democracy, with a focused exploration of the factors shaping this unique form of “democracy” that is emerging in the current context.
 
 Received: 23 September 2023 / Accepted: 30 October 2023 / Published: 23 November 2023

Local Government Election Management in Lagos State and the Influence Of A Zero-Sum Game

By intent and definition, the Local Government in a democracy is supposed to be the closest government to the people and its administrator should be decided by its residents through a free and fair election. But in Nigeria, the works of the election management bodies that conduct Local Government elections in the States are cumbersome because the Governors have substantial control over them. For instance, the Chairman of the Lagos States Independent Electoral Commission is nominated by the Governor, who also has a major stake in the outcome of Local Government elections. The Local Government election in Nigeria is a zero-sum game for the ruling party in the State, as election into all the Local Government administrative centers is seen as a 'must-win' for the party of the Governor. One of the reasons for this is that Local Governments in Nigeria receive a monthly statutory allocation from the National Revenue. Also, local government official positions that include: the Chairman, Vice Chairman, Supervisory Councilors and other Councilors are used by the Governors and other ruling elites in the States to ‘settle’ loyal party members in their localities. This paper uses Lagos State to highlight the reality of the management of local government elections in Nigeria. It submits that the mode of configuration and procedure of local government election administration must be changed to a more transparent and unbiased one before the election can be taken seriously by the residents of the State.

Voting out autocrats: evidence from Zambia

ABSTRACT The world is currently undergoing a period of autocratization, often led by democratically elected presidents who begin to dismantle democratic institutions. In countries with reasonably free and fair elections, the electorate’s ability to vote out the autocratizing incumbent is an important democratic safeguard. Does autocratization matter to the voting public? How do citizens weigh concerns about democratic decline alongside partisan attachments and performance evaluations? This study examines Zambia’s 2021 election, in which citizens voted out an autocratizing incumbent. I use a multimethod approach to illuminate what motivated voters, including analysis of constituency-level election data, qualitative analysis of open-ended responses in an original 300-person survey, and regression analysis of the nationally representative Afrobarometer data. The results indicate that while partisanship and negative evaluations of the incumbent’s economic management were important for voters, so were concerns about the decline of democracy. Voter motivations differed across constituency-level partisan context. Key voters in competitive constituencies were motivated by both economic woes and concerns of democratic decline, while voters in incumbent strongholds defected to the opposition primarily for economic reasons. The study has important implications for understanding voter motivations across partisan contexts under autocratization.

Electoral Legitimacy and Gender Representation Barriers; Theories and Practices in Nigeria

The article describes relevant concepts and theories on Gender Representation and Electoral Legitimacy behaviours and barriers that obstruct global policies for gender equity model to a free and fair election. The limiting barriers and theories described, include Class-Conflict versus Representation Theory, Gender vs Culture, Electoral Legitimacy Deficit vs Dominance Theory, Machismo Culture, Institutional concept, Human Capital, Feminist Rights Concepts (FGF) and the UN Think, Assess, Consider, and Take Action (UNTACT) Concept. The article adopts a descriptive secondary qualitative method to gather data on the key theories, barriers and practices affecting gender representation electoral. Data collection include previous studies, articles, reports, publications, and Electoral Commission official documents already generated. These various sources of information gathered, was critically examined, reviewed, analysed, and synthesized to understand the context in which gender representation barriers exist. Research results indicted Nigeria Electoral process as extremely unreliable at the output-delivery process, and thus, criticised for having flaws and failing to completely enforce candidate electoral rules, which impacts female representation. However, the research contributed to a deeper understanding of the complexities surrounding electoral theories, practices and their impact on electoral system’s legitimacy. Findings suggest, importance of challenging patriarchal electioneering structures, cultural norms, and power imbalances in the political sphere and the need for power dynamics to be examined critically, to deliver effective gender or female representation. Keywords: Electoral Legitimacy, Gender Representation, Theories, Barriers, Nigeria.

Kekosongan Hukum Terhadap Sosialisasi Pemilihan Legislatif Dan Pemilihan Presiden Yang Berkedok Kampanye

Abstract:
 Indonesia has undergone various stages in the development of its democracy, one of which is the General Election. The phenomenon that has emerged today is the lack of clarity in the law regarding the socialization of legislative and presidential elections, which is sometimes disguised as campaign activities. The existing legal vacuum results in a lack of supervision over this kind of outreach, which can affect the integrity of elections and make it difficult for the public to differentiate between outreach and campaign activities. This research uses normative legal research methods, which explore and analyze applicable legal norms, including the Election Law and related regulations, as well as examining related cases that have been held previously. The research results show that the KPU plays a role in regulating and supervising the implementation of elections, including supervising campaign and outreach activities that have the potential to damage the rules. Bawaslu, as an independent monitoring institution, has an important role in monitoring violations during the election process, including in terms of socialization disguised as a campaign. The results of the second research, in order to strengthen democracy and election integrity, joint efforts by the KPU and Bawaslu to supervise socialization are essential to maintain a legitimate and fair election process. Regional governments, as implementers of elections at the local level, must also play a role in supervising socialization in their areas. Installing an APK under the guise of APS is a violation of Regional Regulations so that the regional institution executing it is the Civil Service Police Unit, where controlling socialization props that are considered illegal or violating can be carried out according to the authority of the institution concerned referring to the Regional Regulation. With this joint effort, we can minimize the potential for legal vacuum and promote an election process that is transparent, fair, and in accordance with democratic principles.
 

Conceptualizing and measuring free and fair elections

The quality of elections is a rapidly growing field of study. There are numerous research methods and analysis techniques to examine it. However, literature still needs to shed full light on one of the main concepts associated with this area of research. Often, scholars refer to the concept of “free and fair elections” without providing a precise definition and identifying the dimensions connected to it. This article aims to help fill this gap by proposing a theoretical and operational definition of free and fair elections. For this purpose, the ten dimensions that make up the concept and the procedures to be followed to arrive at their measurement are described in depth. At the end of the analysis, we propose an index that measures the level of freedom and fairness of the elections.

Perceived Impact of Technological Devices in checking electoral malpractices in Nigeria elections

The research work focused on perceived impact of technological devices in checking electoral malpractices in Nigeria elections. A survey research design was adopted for the study. The population of the study is made up of politicians and citizens of Nigeria from the six geo-political zones. Simple random sampling technique was used to determine the sample for the study. Fifty respondents were sampled from each geo-political zone making a total of three hundred (300) respondents. This sampling technique gives each member of the population equal chance of being selected. The instrument for data collection is the questionnaire which has eighteen (18) items designed to elicit information on perceived impact of technological devices in checking electoral malpractices in Nigeria elections. The instrument was validated by two experts in political science at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Anambra State. The mean was used to analyse the data collected. The findings of the study showed that deployment and use of technological devices in Nigeria elections reduced election rigging, shows accurate records of accredited voters, minimizes the volume of election litigation, distinguishes actual voters from fake voters, and ensures a considerable degree of free and fair elections. The findings also showed that the measures to put in place for conduct of free and fair elections in Nigeria are deployment and use of technological devices, electoral reforms, improvement of electoral infrastructures, strengthening electoral security, voters’ education among others. Conclusion and relevant recommendations were made.

Attitudes of Political Science Instructors at Jordanian Universities towards Activating Political Involvement: An Analytical Study

Objectives: The study aimed at recognizing trends of political science professors at the Jordanian universities towards the activation of political participation and recognizing the impacts of variables: (social type, age, social status academic rank, monthly income, and the university).
 Methods: To meet study goals, a descriptive survey method was utilized, employing a questionnaire with two sections: one on demographic traits and the other on political science professors' perspectives regarding political participation activation in Jordanian universities. The sample included (83) professors—(59) male and (23) female—from various public and private universities.
 Results: These findings address the study's questions and validate its hypotheses. Key outcomes include: fostering trust between the populace and ruling elite, ensuring peaceful power succession through fair elections, guaranteeing public freedoms, and respecting human rights as major political trends. In terms of economics, notable trends include enhancing citizens' quality of life, safeguarding the national economy, creating job opportunities, and curbing unemployment. Social priorities involve protecting the family structure, promoting diverse opinions, and combating crime and drug proliferation. Cultural and educational highlights comprise elevating education standards, reducing nepotism, favoritism, and enhancing the role of educational institutions.
 Conclusions: The study submitted several recommendations aiming at activating political participation, the most important of which are: laying dialogue programs about activating political participation to grant space for alighting discussion to increase political awareness level for the significance of political participation and reviewing rules and legislations that hinder this participation.

The Impact of Covid-19 on the Move towards Authoritarianism: The Case of Hungary

As the Freedom House Report 2023 shows, there has been a global trend from democracy to
 authoritarianism over the past 17 years. This gained further momentum in late 2019 with the outbreak
 of the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic in Wuhan, China. In the fight against this virus, which has
 resulted in the deaths of millions of people, governments implemented several significant measures,
 including closures, curfews, and mandatory vaccinations. Under the pretense of combatting the virus,
 populist politicians, who already had authoritarian inclinations before the pandemic, disregarded
 important democratic principles, such as free and fair elections, separation of powers, political liberties,
 and civil rights. The violations of these principles by populist leaders accelerated global democratic
 backsliding. In this context, in March 2020, in response to the coronavirus pandemic, Hungary’s Prime
 Minister Viktor Orban, who has used every political crisis to find excuses to pursue undemocratic
 policies and strengthen his hold on power, pushed the Hungarian parliament to grant him extraordinary
 emergency powers. He used coronavirus precautions to establish one-man rule in Hungary by
 bypassing parliament. His government devised a legislative framework to suppress critics of its policies
 in the media, civil society, and the opposition. Orban also implemented restrictions violating judicial
 independence, minority rights, freedom of expression, and freedom of assembly through constitutional
 amendments. In other words, Orban utilized the coronavirus outbreak to further weaken Hungary’s
 democratic structures and principles. Human rights organizations and the European Union have
 criticized Hungary’s slow erosion of democracy under Orban’s administration. This article analyzes
 the impact of COVID-19 on the acceleration of democratic backsliding in Hungary, under the rule of
 Prime Minister Viktor Orban, in terms of Wolfgang Merkel’s (2004) four conditions for democratic
 consolidation: electoral regimes, civil rights, political freedoms, and separation of powers.

Uniting Divided Religious Leaders to Democratize Zimbabwe

Following the presidential announcement of Zimbabwe’s harmonized 2023 electoral date, most Christian, African Traditional, and other religious leaders commendably resumed advocating for peaceful, free, and fair elections. However, as history usually repeats itself, the tables eventually turned. Some of the leaders regressively became divided, submitted to political infiltration, aligned themselves with oppressive politicians, betrayed their fellow leaders as well as God and humanity, and inadvertently supported totalitarianism. By employing Richard Osmer’s practical theological methodology and engaging with the existing literature, this paper reviewed the (dis)unity and (dis)engagement between Christian and African Traditional Religious (ATR) leaders. It also endeavored to address the underlying (dis)connections in view of Jesus Christ’s all-encompassing servant leadership model, diaconal mission, and the African Ubuntu philosophy. Observing that Zimbabwean religious leaders are retrogressively divided by their varying spiritualities, leadership styles, and political orientations, it is recommended to embrace inclusivity and unity amidst diversity. This can be achieved by resisting selfishness and promoting selflessness, unconditional love, generosity, hospitality, tolerance, peace-making, justice, and social cohesion. These values collectively play a role in the democratization of Zimbabwe and are imperative for its advancement.

Online Disinformation Predicts Inaccurate Beliefs About Election Fairness Among Both Winners and Losers

Electoral disinformation is feared to variously undermine democratic trust by inflaming incorrect negative beliefs about the fairness of elections, or to shore up dictators by creating falsely positive ones. Recent studies of political misperceptions, however, suggest that disinformation has at best minimal effects on beliefs. In this article, we investigate the drivers of public perceptions and misperceptions of election fairness. We build on theories of rational belief updating and motivated reasoning, and link public opinion data from 82 national elections with expert survey data on disinformation and de facto electoral integrity. We show that, overall, people arrive at largely accurate perceptions, but that disinformation campaigns are indeed associated with less accurate and more polarized beliefs about election fairness. This contributes a cross-nationally comparative perspective to studies of (dis)information processing and belief updating, as well as attitude formation and trust surrounding highly salient political institutions such as elections.

Fulfillment Of The Right To Mental Disability In Elections At Ogan Komering ULU District

The right to vote is an inherent human right, universally recognized and protected by international law. It is essential to ensure that every eligible citizen is given equal rights and opportunities to participate in the democratic process by casting their vote without exception. Because the non-involvement of persons with disabilities takes away from the true meaning of democracy, they must be involved in the democratic process. If the political rights of a person or group are not fulfilled, the election may be questioned. To guarantee fair elections, persons with disabilities must be equally involved in the electoral process. This study uses a normative analysis method which begins with describing legal facts, then seeks a solution through a critical analysis of existing positive legal norms. Protection for persons with disabilities has existed since Indonesia ratified the UNCRPD in 2011, even the derivative regulations already exist in Law No. 8 of 2016 which regulates the rights of persons with disabilities. Data at the Ogan Komering Ulu Election Commission shows that mental disabilities are the second largest in number of physical disabilities with a total of 256 people in 13 sub-districts in South Ogan Komering Ulu, they are people whose political rights should be protected by being given space to be creative.

E-KATCH (KANGRA APPLICATION FOR TRACKING CHUNAV)

e-KATCH (Kangra Application for Tracking Chunav) - Web application and Web view for the purpose of election expenditure monitoring - a novel initiative of District Kangra for the Himachal Pradesh Assembly Election 2022. One of the most important aspects of election monitoring is Expenditure monitoring which is paramount for a free and fair election. Since the Election Expenditure monitoring machinery works directly under the DEO, it is imperative that a monitoring tool be placed in a position to supervise the functioning of all the expenditure monitoring teams. The e-KATCH platform serves as a monitoring tool that enables the DEO and other authorized personnel to supervise and manage the activities of these expenditure monitoring teams effectively. This system helps in ensuring that candidates and political parties adhere to the election expenditure limits set by the Election Commission. It enables real-time monitoring of expenses, provides data analysis and reporting features, and facilitates transparency in the electoral process.

The Principles of Islamic Polity in the Qur’an and Sunnah: Revisiting Modern Political Discourse

Polity is a global phenomenon that refers to the political system, structures, and processes for shaping and governing society. Islam, as a complete code of life, addresses all issues of polity. This study attempted to explore the political system of the Holy Qur’an, Practiced by the Prophet (SAAS) and the Khulafa-e-Rashidun as well. This study found that essential principles of the Islamic polity mentioned in the Qur’an are Tawhid (Islamic Monotheism), Shari`ah (Way of life), ‘Adalah (Justice), Hurriyah (Freedom), Musawah (Equality), Shura (Consultation), Al-Wasatiyyah (Moderation), Khilafah (Vicegerency), Ummah (Commonwealth), Muhasabah (Accountability), and Muʿāmalāt (Civil Conduct) etc. Regarding the Prophetic tradition, it is evident that the Madinan Charter, also known as the first written Constitution of the world and the Hudaibiyah Peace Pact were historically significant examples of a multicultural society where peaceful co-existence, freedom of all religions, and women’s participation had been ensured. Moreover, this study also discovered that the major Polity practiced by the Khulafa-e-Rashidun were Free and fair elections, Decision Process by Shura, Respecting Public Opinion, and Ensuring Transparency and Accountability etc.

Governance, Recycled Politicians and Recycling Politics in Nigeria

The politics of recycling, a political system where the same set of people continue to dominate the political affairs of a given country, is one of the challenges undermining political development and good governance in Nigeria. The study, therefore, analyzes the effects of the politics of recycling on Nigeria's governance and administrative system. The qualitative study covers Nigeria's Second Republic from October 1, 1979, to Nigeria's Fourth Republic, which commenced on May 29, 1999 – 2022. The data for the study were gathered from primary and secondary sources. Primary data were gathered through interviews with a number of respondents comprising a Journalist, Engineer, Lecturer, Doctoral Student, Administrator, Lawyer, Human Rights Activist, and Businessmen. A convenience sampling technique was used to select the available and willing respondents to participate in the study. In addition, the researcher's close observations of events in Nigeria form part of the data for the study. The secondary data were gathered through official documents, textbooks, journals, and internet sources. The data collected were analyzed using the content analysis method. The study adopted the Recycling Theory of Abiku to analyze recycled politicians and their antecedents in Nigeria's political activities. According to African mythology, Abiku personifies a child who dies and is reborn repeatedly into the same family and causes pain to its hosts each time the child comes. Nigeria's political class, in a similar manner to Abiku, has continued to play recycling politics without offering anything towards the progress and development of the country, thereby repeatedly leaving a cycle that causes pain to Nigerians. The study concluded that recycling or parading the same set of politicians in the governance and administrative affairs of the country is inimical to the country's political, social, and economic development. The study recommended that the electorates must rise to crush the recycled politicians' antics and tactics and vote for new-breed politicians with impeccable character and proven integrity. Pressure should be mounted on the Independent Electoral Commission by journalists, civil society, national and international observers, as well as other stakeholders on the need to conduct free and fair elections in the country.

Exploring the links between democracy and digital transformation in developing Latin America countries: Building a democracy consolidation theory

The current investigation endeavors to examine Latin America, a region that exhibits poverty, uneven development, and inequality, all of which present significant challenges to the attainment of sustainable progress. The primary objective of the research is to recognize, scrutinize, and explain the factors that are necessary or sufficient for the establishment of a comprehensive democratic system in the region. To achieve this goal, the study will integrate the perspectives of e-state components and multiple stakeholders into a multi-dimensional, multi-level framework. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is acknowledged as a tool that can promote governance and citizen involvement in the public decision-making process by advancing information sharing among citizens, businesses, and governments and upgrading the delivery of public services. Although ICT cannot substitute political institutions, it can act as a catalyst for enhancing the effectiveness and efficiency of political systems. Prior research suggests that ICT has not transformed political systems fundamentally; nevertheless, it has improved processes and transactions in public administration, especially in democratic states. This article utilizes Fuzzy-set Qualitative Comparative Analysis (fsQCA) to evaluate the combined effect of the necessary conditions for Democratic consolidation in LATAM, by investigating the components of technology and its use by individuals, businesses, and governments. By examining a sample of 18 case studies, the aim of the analysis is to develop a comprehensive understanding of the essential conditions and factors that underpin effective state management, which is considered the cornerstone of a democratic system.The conclusion presented is that in order to consolidate a democratic system, it is necessary to overhaul the fundamental structure of the system itself, starting from the inside and working towards external changes. One proposed approach involves utilizing Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) as a catalyst for initiating this internal transformation. By leveraging the power of ICT, it becomes possible to effect change from within the system, which can in turn help to consolidate and enhance democratic principles, while simultaneously eradicating any existing weaknesses or failures. The results create a comprehensive, integrated approach about how to change a system from within; this involves considering not only external factors that the Theory of Democratic Consolidation requires for a strong civic society or fair elections, but also and most importantly the internal factors: How the elements of the system communicate.

DYNAMICS OF RECRUITMENT AND STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP IN IMPROVING BAWASLU'S PERFORMANCE

Popular sovereignty is one of the characteristics of a democratic country. Indonesia as a democratic country realizes people's sovereignty by holding direct, general, free, secret, honest and fair elections. Thus, it is necessary for Bawaslu to play a role in avoiding potential violations at every stage of the election. However, this is not easy, challenges that arise that can hinder Bawaslu's performance are recruitment and strategic leadership. This research aims to determine the various dynamics of recruitment and strategic leadership in improving Bawaslu's performance. The method used in this research is the library study method by reviewing and/or exploring various journals, books and documents related to research. The research results showed that the dynamics of recruitment and strategic leadership of Bawaslu had an impact on the effectiveness of election monitoring. Recruitment based on relevant skills and qualifications is key. Bawaslu leaders also need to have a clear vision and mission in order to improve their performance. With strong recruitment and leadership, Bawaslu can fulfill its responsibilities in ensuring fair, honest and democratic elections

The Role of Political Parties in the Implementation of Democratic General Elections in the Indonesian State Administration System

Purpose: The objective of this study is to analyze the role of political parties in the organization of democratic general elections, in the context of the Indonesian constitutional system. Theoretical framework: Democratic elections are one of the fundamental pillars of the Indonesian political system, based on democratic principles. In this context, political parties play a decisive role in influencing and shaping the general election process, as well as in providing a forum for citizen political participation. Method: This research will use a qualitative approach, with a descriptive analysis and a literature analysis. The results of the study show that democratic elections can be demonstrated in at least 3 things, i.e. whether human rights are recognized, protected and promoted, the loyal capacity of electoral participants. Results and Conclusions: According to the study, democratic elections in Indonesia require an active role of political parties as representatives of the interests of the people. Political parties must be able to articulate the wishes and needs of citizens and to formulate programmes and policies that reflect citizens' values and expectations. In addition, political parties must ensure that the process of electing candidates is highly transparent and accountable. Research Implications: According to the conclusions of this study, political parties play an important role in Indonesia in ensuring the consedeo of democratic elections. Representing the interests of the people, participating in fair elections. Originality/value: Writing quality candidates and leadership candidates, and mobilizing the public to actively participate in elections are part of the responsibilities of political parties.

Judicial resistance during electoral disputes: Evidence from Kenya

Over the last decade, African courts have played an important role in the conduct of free and fair elections. In Kenya, the Supreme Court nullified the presidential election of the incumbent. These rulings challenge the conventional wisdom that courts in hybrid regimes always support power holders despite blatant evidence of electoral fraud. Furthermore, these sparks of judicial resistance deserve our scholarly attention as they have the power to start the democratization process or limit further autocratization. Hence, this paper seeks to understand the conditions under which courts are able to resist incumbents’ pressure to legitimize electoral malpractice and side with the opposition. I argue that institutional reforms incentivize courts to resist the incumbent’s pressure and to rule in favor of the opposition during electoral disputes under two conditions. First, institutional reforms must reinforce de jure independence by enacting effective legal and constitutional mechanisms that prevent the executive branch from undermining the separation of power. Second, institutional reforms must mobilize judicial support networks by granting them the tools to engage in strategic and repeated litigation. I test this novel theory by leveraging original qualitative and quantitative data from Kenya. Using process tracing, I show how the 2010 constitution created an environment where the courts had no other choice than to annul the election of the incumbent – President Kenyatta – in 2017.