Income Factors Research Articles

Drivers of the irrigation water rebound effect: A case study of Hetao irrigation district in Yellow River basin, China

Improving irrigation systems to enhance irrigation efficiency is often considered an effective means of reducing water extraction. However, irrigation efficiency improvements do not always result in reductions in overall water extraction because of the irrigation water rebound effect (WRE). To better promote water conservation, it is necessary to clarify the drivers of the WRE. This study clarifies the drivers of the WRE by developing a 2 × 2 production model through a comparative static analysis. Then, a method for decomposing the WRE is constructed to quantify the drivers of the WRE with the logarithmic mean Divisia index (LMDI) approach. Finally, a case study of the WRE in the Hetao irrigation district in Yellow River basin of China is performed. The WRE can be divided into four effects: the product income effect, product substitution effect, factor income effect and factor substitution effect. These four effects illustrate the following four reasons why water extraction increases in response to irrigation efficiency improvements: sown area expansion, planting structure adjustment to include more water-intensive crops, irrigation proportion expansion and increase in irrigation intensity. In the case study, although the irrigation efficiency of the Hetao irrigation district improved from 1949 to 2017, the water extraction and consumption maintained an upward trend, leading to the WRE. The case study of Hetao irrigation district indicated that all the four effects increased the WRE, and the product income effect (expansion of the sown area) and the factor income effect (expansion of the irrigation proportion) were the main drivers of unrealized water savings in the Hetao irrigation district from 1949 to 2017. This study provides a framework for understanding the WRE and clearly identifies the locations where greater amounts of water are extracted despite irrigation efficiency improvements.

Still the Lands of Equality? Heterogeneity of Income Composition in the Nordics, 1975–2016

Abstract According to standard measures of income inequality, the Nordic countries rank among the most equal economies in the world. This paper studies whether and how this picture changes when the focus is on inequality of income composition, meaning the heterogeneity in individuals’ factor income shares. We show that, for all countries, a shift in capital incomes toward the top since the early 1990s causes rising heterogeneity in individuals’ factor income shares. To explain this result, we highlight the role of dual taxation systems. For Denmark in 2009–2013, Finland (1990–2007), and Norway (1991–2005), rising capital shares contributed to changes in personal income inequality, while for Sweden our results lead to disregard the capital share as a determinant of increasing income inequality.

Macro-Economic Impact of Policies for Controlling Fossil Energy Consumption in China

This paper analyzes the macro-economic impact of controlling fossil energy consumption in China by using a social accounting matrix framework. The empirical results show that, first, restricting the exploitation of fossil energy resources will lead to a decline in the output of other production activities, thereby reducing the factor income and the living standards of residents. Second, improving energy efficiency can promote increased output in other production sectors, and raise factor returns and residents’ living standards. Third, raising the price of energy products will result in higher costs of the entire society. The stronger the dependence on the energy sector, the greater the increase in the industrial cost. Therefore, the government should increase investment in energy efficiency, keep to energy intensity constraints, restrict the extraction amount of energy resources, and reasonably control energy prices based on market environmental factors.

Gender-differentiated impacts of a Rural Electrification Policy in Nigeria

This paper investigates the potential impacts of the Nigerian Rural Electrification Fund (REF-1) on the development of rural communities and specifically assesses the policy's differential impacts on men and women's employment and income. It examines the best approach for the implementation of the subsidy grant that promotes economic activities in the rural areas, in line with the objective of the policy. To that end, a gendered Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) model was employed and data were analyzed under four scenarios against a baseline scenario. The results indicate that as the rural electrification fund increases energy supply, market employment for women, factor incomes, and output in the agricultural sector also rises. Also, the scenario where the subsidy grant was combined with labour and factor productivity, recorded the largest increase overall. The policy implication of these results is that a policy complementary approach is needed to achieve the goals highlighted in the Nigerian Rural Electrification Strategy policy and to produce the desired economic outcomes. In other words, the government subsidy grants on its own to expand electricity supply in the rural areas is not sufficient, it will need to be complemented with policies that enhances productivity and efficiency.

Динамика конкурентоспособности северных регионов за 2008–2020 годы: разработка методики оценки

The conceptual ambiguity of the definition of regional competitiveness hinders the development of socio-economic policy measures to increase a region’s attractiveness to people and capital. The methodology for assessing competitiveness presented in this study evaluates the attractiveness of a region for business, considering the well-being of the population, environmental conditions, economic efficiency and development of innovation and information systems. Technically, the proposed methodology relies on the linear scaling method and various approaches to accounting for interregional price discrimination. Analysis of data obtained from the northern regions of Russia confirmed the conceptual link between competitiveness and productivity and production factors. The key regional competitiveness indicators are personal income and efficiency of production factors — capital intensity and wage intensity. The study revealed low competitiveness of the majority of the northern regions due to the insufficient development of the information system, low attractiveness for business and population, poor economic efficiency and little innovation. In order to maintain high competitiveness of the most successful regions — Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug, Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug and Sakhalin Oblast — authorities should pay more attention to environment and innovation. The lagging regions need to implement measures to attract investment, increase spending on transport infrastructure, and reduce poverty and unemployment. Additionally, the least competitive regions — Nenets Autonomous Okrug, Kamchatka Krai, Arkhangelsk Oblast and the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) — are recommended to focus on improving the regions’ information infrastructure and attractiveness for business. The article demonstrated that more reliable results can be obtained by using the index of budget expenditures instead of the cost of a fixed basket of goods and services adjusted for a specific region, since it better reflects the high cost of life in the northern regions. The findings can be used to develop socio-economic policy of the northern regions of Russia.

Socioeconomic and Clinical Factors Associated with Disease-Related Knowledge of Cardiac Rehabilitation Patients in Brazil

Objective: The objective of this study was to identify socioeconomic and clinical factors associated with disease-related knowledge of cardiac rehabilitation (CR) patients. Methods: Adults with coronary artery disease (CAD) were recruited during CR Phase 1 and completed questionnaires on the 1st day of Phase 2. Disease-related knowledge was assessed by the short version of the CAD Education Questionnaire. Socioeconomic status was defined by educational level, family income, and employment status. MannWhitney U and Spearman correlation were calculated to determine the association of knowledge with socioeconomic factors, number of risk factors, and wait time between hospital discharge and start of outpatient CR. Results: A convenience sample of 39 patients were recruited. Overall, the mean knowledge was 12.00 ± 3.3, which corresponds to 60% of possible scores. Monthly family income and number of risk factors influenced medical condition knowledge (P < 0.05), and employment status influenced total knowledge (P = 0.005) and risk factor knowledge (P = 0.002). Participants with three or more risk factors presented significantly higher knowledge (P = 0.02). Those that waited more than 17 weeks to start the CR presented significantly lower knowledge (P = 0.04). Conclusion: Participants with low income and unemployed were more likely to have inadequate disease-related knowledge; however, the entire sample presented low understanding of their condition. Public health strategies and educational interventions must continue to focus on these vulnerable groups.

Globalization and Factor Income Taxation

Globalization and Factor Income Taxation

The Intersection of Biophysical Economics and Political Economy

The circular flow diagram, whether in its limited form in macroeconomics, or broader form in ecological economics, depicts a duality of flows – physical resources in one direction with financial transactions in the opposite. Biophysical models of the economy can be constructed based on the physical flows and their associated stocks. In previous work, I demonstrated how the accumulation of wealth – measured by the capital stock – can be established using a biophysical model. With capital, energy use, and the distribution of labour determined by biophysical economics, here I investigate the range of potential distributions of wealth – profits versus wages – that follow in the political economy. The analysis is conducted using a four-sector model of Great Britain's economy from 1760 to 1913, including agriculture, coal mining, construction & materials, and production of goods and services. Energy price is a key variable in the model, influencing the distribution of income between different sectors. Taking the price of coal at historically observed values, the distribution of total factor income per worker is plotted as a trade-off between annual wages and profits per worker for example years of 1761, 1817, and 1871. The plots reveal how possible alternative distributions of income might be achieved under different political-economic regimes, subject to the same biophysical constraints. Conclusions are framed in the context of the grand challenges faced by ecological economists of developing environmentally sustainable economies with a just and equitable sharing of resources.

Is carbon pricing regressive? Insights from a recursive-dynamic CGE analysis with heterogeneous households for Austria

We explore the macroeconomic and distributional impacts of unilateral carbon pricing in Austrian economic sectors, which are not covered by the EU emission trading scheme ETS, under various assumptions of revenue usage. We use a recursive-dynamic computable general equilibrium model with twelve groups of private households, differentiated by income quartile and location of residence. Pricing of non-ETS CO2 emissions without any targeted compensation of households turns out to be progressive (when measured in equivalent variation, or welfare) with households living in the periphery being affected the most. This outcome is explained by the dominating progressive factor income effect, which works against regressive consumer price impacts. Considering the positive contribution to welfare from increased public goods provision, low-income households are even better off than without carbon pricing. We compare the revenue usage options ‘no targeted compensation’ with either unconditional or revenue-neutral ‘eco-bonus per capita payments’ as well as revenue-neutral cuts in either ‘labor tax rates’ or ‘value added tax rates.’ We discuss our results from a Utilitarian, Rawlsian and polarization-averse equity perspective. Applying equal weights to the criteria ‘environmental effectiveness’, ‘cost effectiveness’, ‘public budget’ and ‘welfare’, Rawlsian decision makers would prefer the no targeted compensation option. Otherwise, the revenue usage option of revenue-neutral cuts in labor tax rates balance best investigated multiple criteria.

Stroke as an Antecedent Risk Factor for Depression among Post-Menopausal Women

BackgroundAs many as one out of every three individuals develop depression after stroke. Numerous studies have also shown a link between depression and increased rates of mortality after stroke. Additionally, the risk factors and characteristics of stroke are different between men and women. However, the association between stroke and depression has not been investigated in postmenopausal women in a nationally representative sample.MethodsThe association between currently active depression [score ≥ 10 on a Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ)-9 scale] and self-reported history of stroke were assessed among participants from the 2005-2010 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). All post-menopausal women from the nationally representative NHANES study were included in the analysis. Multivariable complex samples logistic regression was used to calculate multivariate-adjusted odds ratios (ORs) of depression.ResultsOut of the 3,636 (representative sample=44,110,822) postmenopausal women, the mean age was 62.6 ± 0.33. The ethnic distribution was 77.3% non-Hispanic Whites, 10.9% non-Hispanic Blacks, 7.5% Hispanics, and 4.3% other nationalities. In age-adjusted analysis, individuals with a history of stroke had 2.5-fold higher odds of active depression than those without a history of stroke (OR 2.57, 95% CI 1.57-4.19, p < .001). Controlling for vascular risk factors (diabetes, hypertension, C-reactive protein, and BMI) of depression and socio-demographic risk factors (age, ethnicity, and income level) attenuated the effect (OR 2.16, 95% CI 1.17-3.99, p < .05).ConclusionsA significant association between previous stroke and current depression was found in this population, independent of vascular disease risk measures among post-menopausal women. These findings highlight the possible importance of screening for and treating depression among stroke survivors. Longitudinal studies need to be conducted assessing the mental health impact of stroke.Key messages Occurrence of stroke may lead to an increased likelihood of depression, especially among post-menopausal women.Due to the global COVID-19 pandemic, surveillance efforts should include mental health complication including those related to stroke.

Capital and Labor: The Factor Income Composition of Top Incomes in the United States, 1962–2006

Abstract This paper finds that capital and labor incomes in the United States have become more closely associated since the 1980s. This has contributed to the well-known increase in the top 1% share of total income, exacerbating rising inequality in capital incomes and earnings. We show that the trend in the association is U-shaped as the recent increase contrasts with a tendency toward a weakening association until the 1980s. The paper, using data derived from tax records, studies the asymmetries in the association and tests for robustness to alternative income definitions, including the role of income from closely held businesses at the top.

Health service underutilization and its associated factors for chronic diseases patients in poverty-stricken areas in China: a multilevel analysis

BackgroundUnderutilization of health services among chronic non-communicable disease sufferers, especially for hypertension (HBP) and diabetes mellitus (DM), was considered as a significant contributing factor to substantial cases in terms of both avoidable morbidity and mortality. However, evidence on health services underutilization and its associated factors in poverty-stricken areas remain scarce based on previous literature. This study aims to describe health services underutilization for people diagnosed with chronic diseases in impoverished regions and to identify its associated factors, which are expected to provide practical implications for the implementations of interventions tailored to the specific needs of disadvantaged residents in rural China to achieve effective utilization of health services in a timely manner.MethodsData were collected from a cross-sectional survey conducted through face-to-face interviews among 2413 patients from six counties in rural central China in 2019. The Anderson behavioral model was adopted to explore the associated factors. A two-level logistic model was employed to investigate the association strengths reflected by adjusted odds ratios (AOR) and 95% confidence intervals in forest plots.ResultsOn average, 17.58% of the respondents with HBP and 14.87% with DM had experienced health services underutilization during 1 month before the survey. Multilevel logistic regression indicated that predisposing factors (age), enabling factors (income and a regular source of care), and need factors (self-reported health score) were the common predictors of health service underutilization both for hypertensive and diabetic patients in impoverished areas, among which obtaining a regular source of care was found to be relatively determinant as a protective factor for health services underutilization after controlling for other covariates.ConclusionsOur results suggested that the implementation of a series of comprehensive strategies should be addressed throughout policy-making procedures to improve the provision of regular source of care as a significant determinant for reducing health services underutilization, thus ultimately achieving equal utilization of health services in impoverished regions, especially among chronic disease patients. Our findings are expected to provide practical implications for other developing countries confronted with similar challenges resulting from underdeveloped healthcare systems and aging population structures.

FAKTOR-FAKTOR YANG MEMPENGARUHI MINAT BERWIRAUSAHA MAHASISWA STAI MUHAMMADIYAH TULUNGAGUNG

One alternative to reduce the unemployment rate in Indonesia is to foster entrepreneurship in college students because this is expected to be an educated young entrepreneur who is able to start his own business, and be able to open up jobs for others. The formulation of the problem include: what are internal factors (income, self-esteem, motivation) and whether external factors (family environment, surrounding environment, education, and opportunities) influence the interest in entrepreneurship of STAI Muhammadiyah Tulungagung students ?. This study aims to determine internal factors (income, self-esteem, motivation) and external factors (family environment, surrounding environment, education, and opportunities) affect the entrepreneurial interest of STAI Muhammadiyah Tulungagung students. The approach used is a quantitative approach to the type of associative research. The population and sample in this study were students of STAI Muhammadiyah Tulungagung which consisted of 50 students who had taken Entrepreneurship courses and students who had been entrepreneurs. Sampling using a purposive sampling technique. The data source is primary data. Data collection was carried out through questionnaires. The measurement uses a Likert scale. The next stage, the results of the questionnaire were analyzed with multiple linear regression which serves to prove the research hypothesis. The data that has met the validity test, reliability test, and the classic assumption test are processed to produce a regression equation. Based on the results of the study showed that internal and external factors partially had a positive and significant effect on the entrepreneurial interest of STAI Muhammadiyah Tulungagung students. With an adjusted R2 value of 0.407 so the magnitude of the influence of internal and external factors on entrepreneurial interest is 40.7% while the remaining 59.3% is influenced by other factors not examined in this study.Keywords: Factors, Interests, Entrepreneurship, STAI Muhammadiyah Tulungagung

Trade liberalization, export quality, and three dimensions of wage inequality*

AbstractIn the context of quality content of export baskets becoming the most important determinant of export growth for developing countries, we show that reduction in tariff on final import goods asymmetrically affects the quality of skill‐based export goods that differ with respect to the relative skill intensity of their higher‐quality varieties. This offers a plausible explanation for asymmetric quality variations across product groups observed for Brazil and India since the 1980s. On the contrary, tariff‐reduction‐induced quality variations, regardless of their asymmetry, accentuate wage inequality in all dimensions by depressing the informal unskilled wage through displacement of unskilled workers from the formal sector and the consequent informalization of the economy. This suggests that tariff reductions accentuating wage inequality, as shown in the existing literature, may be underestimated if induced variations in the quality of export goods are unaccounted for. A quality‐content production subsidy or a subsidy targeting the use of skilled labor, given to producers of the export good whose quality is downgraded as a consequence of tariff reduction, can be used as a concurrent policy to mitigate such effect. The wage inequality will also decline to some extent following such subsidies. A proportional factor income tax may be a quality‐neutral way to finance the subsidies.

Measurement of capital allocation efficiency in emerging economies: evidence from China

In the process of economic growth, emerging economies such as China usually experience technological bias and structural changes, showing the characteristics of time-varying factor income shares. In order to accurately measure the capital allocation efficiency of emerging economies, we explore the impact mechanism of capital optimization on the economy. Based on the idea of a “uniform marginal return on capital”, this paper improves the “function estimation method”, and proposes the use of a time-varying elasticity production function model to estimate time-varying capital output elasticity, in order to measure China's regional capital allocation efficiency. The research results show the average capital allocation efficiency from 2005 to 2017 was 0.957 in Eastern China, 0.934 in Central China, and 0.884 in Western China, an indication that deepening marketization has greatly improved capital allocation efficiency in the country's three major regions. The Cobb-Douglas production function ignores the technology bias and structural changes in the social development of emerging economies, thereby losing 4.6–6.6% of the optimization space for capital allocation, while the time-varying elasticity production function with structural change effect can provide an alternative new production function to measure the capital allocation efficiency of China and other emerging economies.

Effects of Demographic Factors on Impulse Buying Behaviour of Consumers in Auchi, Edo State, Nigeria

The objective of the study was to determine the effects of demographic factors (Age, Gender, Income, Education, Marital Status and Occupation) on impulse buying bahaviour of consumers in Auchi. The study adopted survey design. The population of the study consisted all consumers who have made purchases in their present shopping trip in selected shops (supermarkets). The sample size of 384 was determined using Godden’s formula cited in Sangatang, Siochi and Plaza (2017). The main research instrument was questionnaire which was used to survey 384 respondents (192 males and 192 females). Non-probability convenience sampling was used in administering copies of questionnaire to the respondents. Multiple regression analysis was used to determine result for the data collected with the aid of SPSS 20.0. The multiple regression analysis result revealed among others that demographic characteristics (age, gender, income, education, marital status) had significant relationship with impulse buying behavior of consumers. The study concluded that demographic characteristics of consumers could explain the impulse buying behavior of consumers. The reason is that the study showed significant relationship between demographic characteristics and impulse buying behaviour of consumers might be related to the respondent’s perception about purchasing decision. The study recommended that consumer should arrange their priorities and always weigh specific weight of their preferences in relation to each other according to a particular pattern when purchasing products to prevent buying on impulse.

Does It Run in the Family? How Family Background Affects Attachment Styles for Students in Higher Education.

Background: Socioeconomic background has traditionally been the most important determinant of an individual’s social advantage. Studies have used social class and opportunities based on parental income and education to predict such advantage. There is limited evidence that stratification mechanisms other than socioeconomic background can play an important role. The purpose of the study is to examine the influence of the traditional factors (income and education) of family background on students’ social attachment styles compared to other background variables (civil status and number of children). Methods: We used the Vulnerable Attachment Style Questionnaire as an outcome measure to assess students’ social attachment advantage. As a point of departure, we use theories of social psychology to categorize social relations in terms of secure or insecure bonding, respectively. Results: A cross-sectional data set of 912 university students from five European countries was used. With respect to social attachment, the likelihood of being a student with robust relations increases by 23% if the students have high-income parents. Students with robust relations also have a decreased likelihood of poor body self-esteem by 19% when compared with other students. Conclusions: Stratification mechanisms other than social class, such as parental characteristics, civil status, and number of siblings, all affect the privileged students’ social relations.

Determinants of Breast Cancer Screening Practice among Women in Indonesia: A Nationwide Study.

Background:Breast cancer remains the leading cause of death for women globally, including in Indonesia. Breast cancer screening plays a vital role in reducing deaths caused by breast cancer. However, breast cancer screening rate is still low and studies on determinants for breast cancer screening is limited in Indonesia. This study aimed to identify the determinants of breast cancer screening among women in Indonesia. Methods:This population-based study was conducted among 827 women who lived in either rural and urban areas, using a stratified sampling design where were based on province and locality combinations. Data were analysed using a binary logistic regression model to assess the associations between independent and dependent variables. Results:As many as 827 women with an average age of 29.91 (± 11.14) years old participated in this study. The overall breast cancer screening among women was 18.74%. Knowledge of breast cancer risk factors, signs, and symptoms (adj.OR = 1.75, 95%CI: 1.20 – 2.56), age of 35 to 39 years old (adj.OR. = 1.52, 95% CI: 1.02 – 2.26), and household income of ≥6,000,000 IDR (≥457 USD) (adj.OR. = 5.19, 95%CI: 1.43–18.84) were associated with breast cancer screening attendance. In contrast, Christian women had a significantly lower breast cancer screening rate that women from other religions (adj. OR. = 0.45, 95%CI: 0.24 – 0.85). Conclusion:The overall breast cancer screening attendance was poor among Indonesian women population. Age, household income, religion, and knowledge of breast cancer risk factors were identified as the determinant factors for breast cancer screening.

Keynesian Production Networks and the COVID-19 Crisis: A Simple Benchmark

The COVID-19 crisis is a seemingly all-encompassing shock to supply and demand. These negative shocks affected industries differently: some switched to remote work, maintaining employment and production, while others reduced capacity and shed workers. We consider a stripped-down version of the model in Baqaee and Farhi (2020). The model allows for an arbitrary input-output network, complementarities, incomplete markets, downward wage rigidity, and a zero lower bound. Nevertheless, the model has a stark property: factor income shares at the initial equilibrium are global sufficient statistics for the production network, clarifying assumptions that must be broken if the network is to matter.

The Assessment of Direct Agricultural Investment and Cash Transfer on Households in Malaysia: An Evidence of Compensation Mechanisms for Fuel Subsidy Removal

The objective of this study was to examine the impacts of introducing compensation mechanisms of direct agricultural investment and cash transfer for fuel subsidy removal, with particular focus on the income and consumption of all household segments in Malaysia. A computable general equilibrium (CGE) model was built on the basics of the standardized LöfgrenCGE model to conduct this study. The subsidy removal, without integrating any compensation mechanism, imposed additional burdens of living cost on households as fuel was one of the important elements of the consumption basket especially during the period of transition, thus indicating a need for this study. The ultimate results revealed that the introduction of direct cash transfer was more desirable for both the low-and the medium-income segments to live with high prices where their existing consumption level would be maintained. Comparatively, the direct agricultural investment by increasing the use of intermediate inputs in the production did not seem to be enough to help the rural low-income segment within the period, mainly because of reducing the factor income (factor reallocation effect), and exaggerating consumption expenditure subsequently. Thus, direct cash transfer was considered a direct and faster way to help the needy in the short term. However, the direct agricultural investment remained the best approach to gain long-lasting impacts; not only in helping the rural poor, who mostly dealt in agricultural activities, but also in motivating overall economic activities