Face Fly Larvae Research Articles

Efficacy of Broilers as a Method of Face Fly (Musca autumnalis De Geer) Larva Control for Organic Dairy Production.

Simple SummaryDairy cows housed on pasture are commonly afflicted by face flies, which develop as larvae in cow manure. Some organic dairy producers graze chickens in succession behind cattle as an effort to disrupt the development of dung fly larvae, but this method has yet to be validated as a successful method of pest management. In a controlled research trial, pastured broiler chickens did not reduce the survival of face fly larvae that developed in cow dung pats. This finding was buoyed by broiler behavioral observations, which revealed the broilers were unwilling to forage in dung pats. In general, broilers were reluctant to leave their shelter as solar radiation increased and climatic conditions were associated with the displacement of time allocated to sitting and sleeping behaviors. Dairy producers should take heed when adopting methods of fly control that rely on broiler chickens to willingly forage in cow dung pats especially when climatic conditions are aversive.The objective of this study was to evaluate Freedom-Ranger broiler chickens as a method to control face fly (Musca autumnalis De Geer) larvae in cow dung pats on pasture. Ninety-nine pats in three replicates were inoculated with first-instar larvae and exposed to one of four treatment conditions for 3 to 4 days: (1) an environment-controlled greenhouse (GH); (2) pasture without broilers (NEG); (3) pasture with 25 broilers stocked at a low density of 2.5 m2 of outdoor area per broiler (LOW); and (4) pasture with 25 broilers stocked at a high density of 0.5 m2 of outdoor area per broiler (HIGH). Broiler behaviors and weather conditions were recorded twice daily. Survival rates of larvae (mean, 95% CI) were similar for pats in the NEG (4.4%, 2–9%), LOW (5.6%, 3–11%), and HIGH (3.2%, 2–7%) groups, and was greatest for larvae reared in the GH (54.4%, 36–72%) group compared to all other groups. The proportion of broilers observed pasture ranging was 14.0% (6–28%) but was negatively related to solar radiation. Broilers were never observed foraging in pats. Results indicate that use of broilers may not be an effective method for controlling larvae of dung pat breeding flies.

Moxidectin Evaluation Against Solenoptes capillatus (Anoplura: Linognathidae), Bovicola bovis (Mallophaga: Trichodectidae), and Musca autumnalis (Diptera: Muscidae) on Cattle

Slow release formulations of 375, 750, and 1,125 mg (AI) in 50-g boluses and a subcutaneous injectable formulation (0.2 mg AI/kg body wt) of moxidectin (CL301423) were tested for the control of the little blue cattle louse, Solenoptes capillatus (Enderlein), and the cattle biting louse, Bovicola bovis (L). S. capillatus populations were reduced 4 wk after treatment and complete control was observed 6 wk after treatment in groups treated with boluses, B. bovis were first observed at 3 wk and continued to increase throughout the 14-wk test period. These were experimental boluses and future boluses may perform differently. Subcutaneous injections of moxidectin gave complete control of S. capillatus for a 27-d test period. Feces from animals treated with boluses were tested with face fly larvae, Musca autumnalis De Geer, to demonstrate fecal activity of moxidectin. Larval mortality in these groups ranged from 90 to 30% from 2 d to 10 wk after treatment.

Dairy Cattle Fly Control with Vigilante (tm) Premix, 1986

Abstract Holstein cattle herds were fed either Vigilante premix feedthrough or Rabon (tm) oral larvicide to evaluate their efficacy against the horn, face, and house fly. Visual counts of the above flies as well as stable flies were also made. The treatment began on 15 May and the herds were separated by a minimum distance of 10 miles. Premixes were administered daily by adding them to the mineral mix concentrate prior to adding into the total ration. Herds were treated as follows: 105 cows along with 44 calves and heifers were given 3.8% Vigilante premix at a rate of 5 mg AI/100 lb body wt. (A); 130 cows and 35 heifers were given a 7.76% Rabon oral larvicide at a rate of 70 mg AI/100 lb body wt. (B); 90 cows untreated (Control). Horn flies and stable flies were evaluated on 10 animals on a bimonthly basis. Horn flies were counted on one side of the animal and stable flies were counted on the legs of the same animal. House fly counts were taken within 1 square meter grids at 10 different locations around the cow loafing area. Normal fly control procedures included sanitation, misting, and hand spraying of resmethrin or permethrins. Fresh manure was collected from 5 animals bimonthly and bioassayed using newly hatched colonized horn fly, face fly, and house fly larvae. Twenty-five larvae were placed in 50-100 g of manure sample and the larvae mortality calculated from the number of emerged adults.

Beef Cattle Fly Control with Diflubenzuron (Vigilante tm) Bolus, 1986

Abstract Fifty g Vigilante boluses containing 4.9g AI diflufbenzuron were evaluated for the control of horn flies and face flies under field conditions. Herds were pastured cow/calf operations located within a 40-mile radius in central Kentucky. Control herds were similar operations located within 4 miles of the treated herds. Boluses were administered to cattle with a balling gun at a rate of 1 bolus/250 kg body weight between 1 May and 15 May. Another comparison herd was tagged with Guardian (tm) ear tags during she same period and evaluated concurrently for fly control. Herds were treated as follows: 102 steers (A) treated at a rate of 1 bolus/steer; 45 cows/calves (B) treated at rate of 1.5 bolus/cow and 0.5 bolus/calf; 55 cows and 8 calves as untreated controls (conAB); 39 heifers (C) at 1 bolus/animal; 30 cows (conC) untreated; 30 cow and 12 calves at 1.5 bolus/cow and 1 eartag/calf (D); 38 cows tagged with Guardian ear tags (T) at rate of 2 tags/cow; and 30 cows untreated (conDT). The number of horn flies and face flies were counted on 10 cattle from each herd every 2 weeks. Horn flies were counted on one side of the animal; sice flies were counted on the face and head of the same animal. Fresh manure from 5 animals of each herd was collected biweekly and bioassayed utilizing newly hatched colonized horn face and house fly larvae. Twenty-five larvae were placed in 50-100 g of feces and larval mortality calculated by counting adult (mergence. Bioassays were performed on bolused cattle only.

Morphology and biochemical composition of mineralized granules from the malpighian tubules of Musca autumnalis de geer larvae (Diptera: Muscidae)

Musca autumnalis De Geer (face fly) larvae form numerous small mineralized granules in the lumen of the anterior Malpighian tubules. The granules are spherical, ranging in diameter from 0.2 to > 10 μm and are composed of many concentric thin layers. The layers appear to be covered by an organic-rich material that may help to bind adjacent layers together. Individual layers appear to be heterogeneous with some composed of small rounded particles of inorganic-rich material imbedded in a loose fibrous mat while other layers appear more solid. The granules are primarily inorganic in composition (>85% ash) with calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium contributing more than 98% of the inorganic elements. Water content is approx. 10%. Carbonate carbon and hydrogen account for 2 to 3% of the granule weight. Nitrogen and organic carbon are only minor elements primarily present in the form of amino acids which contribute only 0.4% of the total granule weight. Aspartic acid and glutamic acid comprise more than 30% of the total amino acids detected after acid hydrolysis. The properties of face fly granules and puparial cuticle are compared, together with those of mineralized granules from other species of invertebrates.

Diflubenzuron Boluses, Guardian Eartags, and Rabon Mineral for Beef Cattle Fly Control, 1985

Abstract Mixed beef breeds of cow/calves and heifers were separated into 4 groups and treated as follows: 34/31 (cow/calf) untreated (C); 29/29 treated with 10% diflubenzuron boluses at a rate of 2 boluses/cow and 0.5/calf (B); 40/40 tagged with 7.5% Guardian ear tags at rate of 2 tags/hd (ET); and 29/29 treated with both eartags and boluses (calves not bolused)(ET + B), and 33 heifers offered 0.463% Rabon loose mineral ad libitum (RM); Boluses were administered and ear tags attached 8 May. Total number of face flies on the face of each of 10 adult animals and horn flies on one side of the same animals were estimated weekly. Feces from the RM, B, and C groups were collected biweekly and bioassayed with house, face and horn fly larvae.

Influence of Bacteria Within Bovine Feces on the Development of the Face Fly (Diptera: Muscidae)

The role of living gastrointestinal bacteria in the growth and development of face fly ( Musca autumnalis DeGeer) larvae in bovine feces was evaluated. Egg-to-pupa survival and mean pupal weight were lower for larvae grown in steam-sterilized feces than for larvae grown in unsterilized feces (4.6 versus 28.0% and 15.3 versus 26.1 mg, respectively). However, larval development was not retarded in sterilized feces that had been inoculated with bacteria collected from the bovine rumen or with a mixture of 11 bacterial isolates representing the major bacterial groups from the gastrointestinal tract. When tested individually, all of the isolates tended to improve larvae survival in sterilized feces, but no single isolate provided for survival rates equivalent to those observed with the mixed inoculum. Survival rates were greatest when sterilized feces were inoculated with strains of Escherichia coli or Lactobacillus plantarum which gave survival rates of 57.2 and 32.8% of the unsterilized control, respectively. These data suggest that the presence of living bacteria in bovine feces is essential to normal growth and development of face fly larvae.

Carbonic anhydrase in the face fly, Musca autumnalis (degeer) (Diptera: Muscidae)

Carbonic anhydrase was detected in the face fly, Musca autumnalis, and the development profile of the enzyme showed that maximum enzymatic activity occurred in the post-feeding larva. By comparison, little carbonic anhydrase activity was observed in post-feeding larvae of the house fly, Musca domestica. The enzyme was localized in the haemolymph, salivary glands, midgut and brain of post-feeding face fly larvae using an electrometric assay and Hansson's histochemical technique. No enzymatic activity was detected in the anterior Malpighian tubules, posterior Malpighian tubules, fat body, tracheae and carcass. These findings suggest that carbonic anhydrase has no function in the formation of the calcospherites located in the anterior Malpighian tubules of post-feeding larvae, but may be important in the ecdysial elimination of minerals during pupariation.

The calcified puparium of the face fly, Musca autumnalis (Diptera: Muscidae)

The general composition of the calcified puparium of Musca autumnalis was determined. Ash-weight analyses show that 62% of the puparium is inorganic material. The major components of the puparium are calcium, magnesium, phosphate and carbonate. Calcium and magnesium phosphate are the predominant salts in the puparium, with a lesser contribution by their respective carbonates. Scanning electron microscopy revealed that the exocuticle was the site of calcification in the puparium. Inorganic analyses of the insoluble salt isolated from face fly larvae showed it to be compositionally identical with the puparial salt. Major organic components of the puparium are lipid, chitin and protein. The presence of carbonic anhydrase and alkaline phosphatase activity in post-feeding larvae was confirmed.

Efficacy of monensin as a cattle feed additive against the face fly and horn fly.

Four groups of eight Hereford and Hereford crossbred steers were monitored for the efficacy of monensin as a feed additive against the face fly and horn fly. Groups were assigned randomly to 3-ha grass-clover pastures. Two groups were supplemented with 1.1 kg ground corn/head daily (untreated), while the remaining groups were given 1.1 kg ground corn containing 100 mg monensin for 14 d and 200 mg monensin/head daily for the remainder of the 112-d trial. Fresh feces were collected from four steers in each group and bioassayed with newly hatched face fly and horn fly larvae. Fly mortality occurred in the larval stages, and the bioassay for feces from cattle given monensin at 200 mg/head daily showed an average of 19.9 and 23.3% fewer (P less than .01) face fly and horn fly pupae, respectively, than were recovered from feces of the untreated cattle. Surviving face fly and horn fly pupae were smaller (P less than .01) than the untreated pupae.

Influence of Two Species of Dung Beetles 1 on Larvae of Face Fly 2

Laboratory experiments were carried out to assess the influence of two dung beetles Onthophagus taurus Schreber and Onitis alexis Klug, on larvae of face fly, Musca autumnalis DeGeer, developing within the same cowpats. Increasing densities of both teneral and mature O. taurus caused corresponding decreases in the survival of fly larvae and the size of emerging adults. In contrast, survival of face fly larvae was independent of the density of teneral O. alexis . but quite dependent upon the density of mature beetles. This difference was related to the amount of dung buried by beetles in the two age-classes. The earlier both species of beetles colonized cowpats relative to face fly, the more face fly was adversely affected. When reared with either species of beetle alone, mortality among fly larvae was greater than could be attributed to starvation. When reared with both species, both the survival and size of face fly larvae were lower than predicted by the combined effects of each beetle alone. Implications for future efforts to manage the face fly with dung-burying scarabs are discussed.

The Influence of Various Levels of Ground Ear Corn and Alfalfa Hay in the Bovine Diet on the Development of the Face Fly 1

Ground ear corn was fed to an Angus cow in increasing percentages to study the effect of fecal pH, percent fecal moisture, and percent fecal crude protein on larval mortality and pupal weight of the face fly, Musca autumnalis DeGeer. As the percent ground ear corn in the bovine diet increased, the percent mortality of face fly larvae developing in the feces tended to increase, with 100% mortality occurring in the feces after the bovine had consumed 5.448 kg of ground ear corn. Fecal pH fell from 6.92 to 5.58 and percent moisture and percent crude protein varied slightly as the percent ground ear corn in the diet increased.

Cattle, Dursban 10 CR as a Feed Through for Face Fly Control, 1977

Abstract One 198 kg steer was fed Dursban 10 CR granules in its daily diet for 3 days. Twenty-four hours after the last feeding, three 100-g fecal samples were collected and each bioassayed with 25 face fly larvae. A higher dosage was fed weekly until a 100% face fly mortality was obtained. Feces from a steer on the same diet with-out the Dursban was used for untreated checks.

Effects of Parasitization by the Nematode, Heterotylenchus autumnalis, on Mating and Oviposition in the Host, Musca autumnalis

Male face flies parasitized by the nematode Heterotylenchus autumnalis are capable of mating and inseminating females. However, less than 50% of the flies inseminated by infected males oviposit. Female hosts are castrated by the nematodes which penetrate and destroy the ovaries. Although the testes are not destroyed by the nematode, acessory glands are lacking in many heavily infected males 9 to 12 days old. The fate of the nematode in male hosts appears to be a dead end, since there is no natural means for the parasite to exit from male flies. Mating appears to be necessary for infected females to deposit nematodes. Heterotylenchus autumnalis is a nematode parasite of the face fly, Musca autumnalis, one of the leading pests of dairy and beef cattle in the United States and Canada. The life cycle of the parasite involves an alternation of gamogenetic and parthenogenetic stages, with infection of host larvae occurring in bovine feces, the breeding site of the fly (Stoffolano and Nickle, 1966; Nickle, 1967). Female hosts are castrated by the larval nematodes which penetrate and destroy the ovaries of the flies. Infected female flies go through a mock and deposit larval nematodes, instead of fly eggs, into manure. Heterotylenchus autumnalis may prove to be an effective biological control agent against M. autumnalis since the nematode sterilizes female flies and is naturally disseminated by the host. There is also some evidence to suggest the parasite is host-specific (Jones and Perdue, 1967; Stoffolano and Streams, 1971; Nappi and Stoffolano, 1971, 1972; Stoffolano, 1973), but additional experimental evidence is needed to determine the relationships of the nematode with other dung-breeding Diptera. Information is also needed concerning the fate of the nematode in male flies, and the effects of parasitization on the reproductive biology of the host. The present investigation was undertaken to determine whether nematode-infected male face flies could successfully mate and inseminate female flies, and if mating stimuli were necessary for parasitized flies to deposit nematodes. Since the ovipositor of the female is Received for publication 16 July 1973. positioned within the genital atrium of the male during copulation, the possibility of a transfer of infection was also considered. MATERIALS AND METHODS Fa e flies used in this study were maintained at 27 ? 2 C, 16 hr photophase, and 50 to 55% relative humidity. The adult flies were fed powdered milk, sugar, and water. Fresh bovine feces was used as the oviposition and larval rearing medium. The nematodes were obtained from a laboratory colony of infected face flies maintained at the Entomology Research Division, USDA, Lincoln, Nebraska. To propagate the nematodes the abdomens of 12-day-old infected adult flies were dissected and the parasites spread over the surface of manure containing face fly larvae. Infected and noninfected flies were reared separately. To obtain virgin flies of known age, fly pupae were individually placed into glass vials and covered. Following eclosion the flies were sexed, removed from the vials, and transferred to separate wire-screen cages. Mating experiments were performed with 7-day-old females and infected males 5 to 12 days old. Each pair of flies was placed within a screen cage for 24 hr to allow for mating. No individual was used more than once. After 24 hr the males were dissected to determine whether they were parasitized. Female flies that had been paired with infected males were each reared in isolation and provided with fresh bovine feces twice a week for a period of 2 weeks. The surface of the manure was examined to determine the presence of eggs. Females that did not oviposit and produce offspring were dissected or examined histologically for the presence of spermatozoa in the spermathecae. For histological examinations the flies were fixed in either Kahle's or Mahdissan's solution (8 hr), cleared in 2 changes of dioxane (6 to 8 hr each), and vacuum infiltrated in a paraffin oilParaplast series for 1 to 2 days. Longitudinal

Factors Affecting Parasitism of the Face Fly by Aphaereta pallipes in Laboratory Studies123

The biology of Aphaereta pallipes (Say), a braconid parasite of the face fly, Musca autumnalis De Geer, was studied with particular emphasis on ovipositional habits and factors affecting oviposition in the laboratory. Larval hosts were found to migrate into successively deeper layers of an artificial manure pile as time progressed. This habit influences contact with hymenopterous parasites. The parasites oviposited in all 3 instars of face fly larvae but showed a definite preference for the 1st and 2nd instars. Ovipositing females were evidently unable to place eggs normally in the haemocoel of older larvae, for the number of eggs found just under the cuticle of the host increased as the host age during exposure increased. Parasites developing to the adult stage were fewer in larval attacked in the 3rd instar than those attacked in the 1st and 2nd instars. A greater number of eggs of the parasite were found in larval hosts when Sphaeridium scarabadcoides (L.) beetles were present.

Mortality in Field Populations of Face Fly Larvae and Pupae12

To obtain a gross estimate of field mortality of larval populations of Musca autumnalis De Geer in Virginia, approximately equal numbers of eggs laid in the laboratory were placed in trays of manure inside insect-proof cages and inside insect-accessible cages. Differences in numbers of resulting pupae were considered to be caused by the biotic environment. Larval mortality averaged 49% in 1966 and 63% in 1967. Adult flies emerged from 92.1% of the pupae in the protected cage but from only 47.4% of the exposed pupae. As as result of exposure to the biotic environment total reduction of adult flies was 80.1%.

Polyvinyl Chloride-Insecticide Pellets Fed to Cattle to Control Face Fly Larvae in Manure123

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pellets containing diazinon, dichlorvos, dimethoate, and dimetilan, and acetone solutions of these insecticides were added directly to cattle manure and fed to cattle to determine effectiveness against larvae of Musca autumnalis De Geer in manure. All insecticides in PVC or in acetone solution were very effective when added directly to manure, producing 100% mortality at 0.0003% in manure. Dimetilan in acetone solution produced 95% mortality at 0.000003%, and diazinon and dichlorvos produced 92 and 100% mortality, respectively, at 0.00003%. Insecticides in acetone solution, fed at 5 mg/kg per day, were not effective larvicides in manure. However, at the same dosage in PVC pellets, these insecticides except dimethoate + fenthion and trichlorfon produced 100% mortality through 4 days after termination of treatment. Diazinon and dichlorvos in PVC, the most promising materials, were effective through the last feeding day at 0.5 mg/kg per day. In further feeding trials with PVC-diazinon and PVC-dimetilan, reduction of pellet size, simultaneous with increasing the number of pellets fed, improved the larvicidal effectiveness of diazinon, but not of dimetilan. Increasing the number of pellets fed, by decreasing the concentration of insecticide in PVC, increased the effectiveness of dimetilan but did not alter the effectiveness of diazinon. Rate of passage of PVC-insecticide pellets through the bovine digestive tract increased with decreasing specific gravity. One-eighth-inch cubes and 1/16-inch cubes, which had almost identical passage rates, were found to pass through more rapidly than 1/32-inchcubes. Time of maximum excretion of PVC-insecticide pellets in manure was not necessarily the time of greatest mortality because of loss of insectide from the PVC pellets and subsequent degradation while in the digestive tract. Shell Chemical Company Animal Health Product V-13 dichlorvos-PVC, fed to a dairy herd for an entire summer at ¼ mg/kg per day, did not control face fly larval development in manure. There was no detectable toxicity to the catlle or residues of dichlorvos in milk.

Laboratory evaluation of two aleocharine parasites of the face fly.

Two species of alcocharine staphylinid beetles were studied in the laboratory relative to their potential as parasites and predators of the face fly, Musca autumnlis De Geer. Aleochara bimaculata Gravenhorst a cosmopolitan parasite of other muscoid puparia in the United States, was found to parasitize less than 1% of face fly puparia and to cause 19.4% reduction of face flies by predation. Similar studies of a native French parasite of the face fly, A. tristis Gravenhorst, yielded an average of 13.5% parasitism, indicating the species may have a low searching capacity. Predation on face fly eggs and larvae by A. tristis caused a reduction of approximately 10% of face flies reaching the pupal stage.

Nematode Parasite (Heterotylenchus sp.) of Face Fly in New York State1

The face fly, Musca autumnalis DeGeer, was first noticed in North America about 1952. The exact date of its introduction into North America from Europe is unknown. It is not known whether it carried with it any natural parasites, but at least none were noted at the time. Blickle (1961) has reported 3 species of parasitic Hymenoptera attacking face fly pupae in New hampshire. Benson and Wingo (1963) found 1 of the 3, Aphaereta pallipes (Say), in face fly larvae and pupae in Missouri. Though it was ony species of the 3 that they found in appreciable numbers, it did not emerge normally from the puparia.

Free Choice Feeding of Ronnel Mineral Block and Granules for Face Fly, Horn Fly, and Cattle Grub Control1

Two formulations of ronnel, 5.5% ronnel mineral granules and 5.5% ronnel mineral block, were given free choice to Charolais cows, calves, and heifers for control of face fly, Musca autumnalis DeGeer; horn fly, Haematobia irritans (L.); and cattle grub, Hypoderma (spp.). The 5.5% ronnel mineral block was also tested in conjunction with a combination face rubber and mineral feeder. The face rubber was treated with 1% ronnel in no. 2 fuel oil. Good horn fly reduction occurred in all tests, whereas face fly reduction was negligible in 2 of 3 tests. Face fly reduction was greatest on the cattle having access to the face rubber. Bioassay of composite fecal sample with face fly larvae indicated that the manure was completely unsuitable for larval development. However, inspection of individual dung piles in the field showed relatively poor control of face fly larvae. Cattle grub control was essentially 100%. The cows and calves having access to the blocks consumed more ronnel mineral than cows and calves having access to the granular form. Open heifers consumed more ronnel mineral block than the cows and calves on either formulation.