Low-cost Fabrication Research Articles

Agile-X: A Structured-ASIC Created With a Mask-Less Lithography System Enabling Low-Cost and Agile Chip Fabrication

Agile-X: A Structured-ASIC Created With a Mask-Less Lithography System Enabling Low-Cost and Agile Chip Fabrication

Recent progress in monolithic two-terminal perovskite-based triple-junction solar cells

Monolithic perovskite-based triple junction solar cells have the potential to surpass the power conversion efficiency (PCE) limits of single and dual-junction solar cells.

Lignin containing cellulose nanofiber/Ag2Se nanocomposite films: a promising material for thermoelectric film generators.

This work deals with the fabrication of lignin containing cellulose nanofiber (LCNF)/Ag2Se films for thermoelectric applications. Ag2Se nanoparticles were synthesized within the LCNF network through in situ methods, employing Na2SeO3 and AgNO3 along with microwave energy treatment. LCNF/Ag2Se films fabricated with two LCNF : Ag2Se weight percent ratios (i.e., 50 : 50 and 30 : 70) were used to construct a flexible thermoelectric module. The obtained Ag2Se nanoparticles displayed a uniform size distribution in the LCNF network with smaller dimensions from the microwave energy treated group. The microstructure of LCNF/Ag2Se films was improved by hot-pressing, leading to enhanced film density thermoelectric properties. At a differential temperature of 50 K, films with 50% and 70% of Ag2Se exhibited output voltages of 18 and 21 mV; and Seebeck coefficients of -60 and -70 μV K-1 at 350 K, respectively. When microwave energy was applied, the films at 50% and 70% Ag2Se showed highest output voltages of 19 and 33 mV, respectively, and Seebeck coefficients of -63.3 and -110 μV K-1 at 350 K. The low-cost fabrication process associated with this module opens a pathway for applications such as energy harvesting.

Microneedle Array Electrodes Fabricated With 3D Printing Technology for High-Quality Electrophysiological Acquisition.

Electrophysiological recordings are vital in assessing biological functions, diagnosing diseases, and facilitating biofeedback and rehabilitation. The applications of conventional wet (gel) electrodes often come with some limitations. Microneedle array electrodes (MAEs) present a possible solution for high-quality electrophysiological acquisition, while the prior technologies for MAE fabrication have been either complex, expensive, or incapable of producing microneedles with uniform dimensions. This work employed a projection stereolithography (P μ SL) 3D printing technology to fabricate MAEs with micrometer-level precision. The MAEs were compared with gel and flat electrodes on electrode-skin interface impedance (EII) and performances of EMG and ECG acquisition. The experimental results indicate that the P μ SL 3D printing technology contributed to an easy-to-perform and low-cost fabrication approach for MAEs. The developed MAEs exhibited promising EII and enabled a stable EMG and ECG acquisition in different conditions without inducing skin allergies, inflammation, or injuries. This research lies in the development of a type of customizable MAE with considerable biomedical application potentials for ultra-minimally invasive or non-invasive electrophysiological acquisition.

Polymeric integration of structure-switching aptamers on transistors for histamine sensing.

Aptamers that undergo large conformational rearrangements at the surface of electrolyte-gated field-effect transistor (EG-FETs)-based biosensors can overcome the Debye length limitation in physiological high ionic strength environments. For the sensitive detection of small molecules, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) that approach the dimensions of analytes of interest are promising channel materials for EG-FETs. However, functionalization of CNTs with bioreceptors using frequently reported surface modification strategies (e.g., π-π stacking), requires highly pristine CNTs deposited through methods that are incompatible with low-cost fabrication methods and flexible substrates. In this work, we explore alternative non-covalent surface chemistry to functionalize CNTs with aptamers. We harnessed the adhesive properties of poly-D-lysine (PDL), to coat the surface of CNTs and then grafted histamine-specific DNA aptamers electrostatically in close proximity to the CNT semiconducting channel. The layer-by-layer assembly was monitored by complementary techniques such as X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, optical waveguide lightmode spectroscopy, and fluorescence microscopy. Surface characterization confirmed histamine aptamer integration into PDL-coated CNTs and revealed ∼5-fold higher aptamer surface coverage when using CNT networks with high surface areas. Specific aptamers assembled on EG-CNTFETs enabled histamine detection in undiluted high ionic strength solutions in the concentration range of 10 nM to 100 μM. Sequence specificity was demonstrated via parallel measurements with control EG-CNTFETs functionalized with scrambled DNA. Histamine aptamer-modified EG-CNTFETs showed high selectivity vs. histidine, the closest structural analog and precursor to histamine. Taken together, these results implied that target-specific aptamer conformational changes on CNTs facilitate signal transduction, which was corroborated by circular dichroism spectroscopy. Our work suggests that layer-by-layer polymer chemistry enables integration of structure-switching aptamers into flexible EG-CNTFETs for small-molecule biosensing.

Silicon distyryl-BODIPY hybrid photodiode: moving a step ahead from organic interface layer to type II band alignment

Organic-inorganic heterojunctions are becoming an attractive topic of research for their applications in hybrid photodetectors, solar cells, resistive switching memory devices etc. The easy chemical synthesis and low-cost fabrication for organic thin films come with the benefit of high light absorptivity, high fluorescence quantum yield and band gap tunability along with high charge carrier lifetime that could be combined with the existing silicon-based technology. In this aspect, various organic dyes utilised as an interfacial layer with silicon Schottky junction are reported earlier. However, the photo responses are quite limited. Here, in this report, a Type II Silicon/Distyryl-BODIPY p-n junction has been proposed as an organic-inorganic hybrid photodetector which has not been explored extensively yet. The transformation from a mere organic interfacial layer to band aligned junction enhances the charge carrier separation providing higher photo-responsive behaviour. With the simple spin-coating technique, the Distyryl-BODIPY derivative with phenolic functionalities is coated to fabricate the p-n junction diode. To further improve the performance, pyramidal surface texturization on silicon is deployed using wet chemical etching that supplements the light absorption with internal reflections. Both the devices have been investigated for their photo-response characteristic where a high photo-responsivity of 4353 A W−1 is attained for the textured device as compared to 118 A W−1 for the planar silicon device at a − 3 V bias with an ultra-high specific detectivity of 1012 Jones and 1010 Jones respectively. The behaviours of interfacial states have been demonstrated using the capacitance (C), conductance (G) and series resistance (RS) vs voltage (V) curves at different frequencies. Further calculations of interfacial state density revealed the existence of 1000 times higher interfacial states in planar device leading to lower performance as compared to pyramidal device. The findings in this report suggest that dye-based organic-inorganic heterostructures find potential applications in photodetectors and other optoelectronic devices.

Low-cost and simple fabrication of micro-mask/micro-channels on different substrates based on water-soluble fiber poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA)

Here we report an approach to fabricate micro-mask/micro-channels using water-soluble fiber poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA). The scheme is a simple, environmentally friendly, and low-cost technology, that can realize the preparation of micro-mask/micro-channels on different substrates. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) and optical microscope (OM) are used to observe surface morphology and measured fiber diameter. We showed that a variety of micro-mask/micro-channels can be easily controlled by changing the swelling temperature and time of the PVA fiber. The swelling temperature was varied from 25 °C to 50 °C, the diameter of the fiber increased by 9.5 μm, and the diameter and volume swelling rates reached 59.38% and 154%, respectively. Meanwhile, with the increase in swelling time, the diameter and volume swelling rate showed the same increasing trend. Additionally, we used the PVA fiber as a micro-mask to prepare the micro-channel on the WSe2 surface and verified the feasibility of the PVA fiber to prepare micro-mask/micro-channels by testing the electrical properties of the WSe2 sample. Finally, we also verified the feasibility of the above methods to fabricate micro-mask/micro-channels on different substrates such as conductive fibers, PDMS, and WSe2/SiO2Si, and proposed to realize nano-scale patterning through direct electrospinning. Therefore, it is expected to be more widely promoted in the future.

A novel and compact ultra‐wideband printed monopole antenna with enhanced bandwidth and dual‐band stop properties

AbstractThis article introduces a novel and compact design of an ultra‐wideband (UWB) printed monopole antenna with an enhanced bandwidth and dual band‐stop performance. A modified π‐shaped slot has been inserted in the ground plane to exhibit a wide impedance bandwidth of 116% (ranging from 3.1 to 11.2 GHz), whereas dual stopband responses (at 3.5 and 5.5 GHz) are obtained by embedding three I‐shaped stubs and a pair of modified Γ‐shaped slits in the radiating patch. The proposed topology is highly compact having an overall dimension of 18 mm × 14 mm (which is equivalent to 0.7λg × 0.54λg, where λg is the guided wavelength corresponding to the lower resonance band), has a low fabrication cost, an ultra‐wide impedance bandwidth, and omnidirectional radiation patterns in the H‐plane, which make the antenna appropriate for wideband applications and integration into UWB system. To check the advantages of the proposed antenna, experimental verification has been carried out as well as the results are compared for UWB scenarios.

Simulation and Characterization of an Inverter Logic Gate by Utilizing InGaAs-Based Planar Devices

Electronic circuits known as logic gates can perform basic logical operations like inverters, AND, and OR gates. These logic gates serve as the basis for digital electronics, and they are a common component in various electronic devices, such as computers, smartphones, and other types of digital systems. This research presents an inverter logic gate made of planar devices, which have significantly simpler structures than multi-layered transistors and diodes, namely the self-switching diode (SSD) and side-gated transistor (SGT). The inverter logic gate is realized by simply connecting both SSD and SGT in parallel. The electrical characteristics and performances of the inverter logic gate are assessed based on InGaAs material using SILVACO Inc.'s ATLAS device simulator software. The simulation results show that the functionality of the proposed planar inverter is comparable to that of a conventional inverter logic gate based on the standard truth table of the device. This has demonstrated the feasibility of building logic gates using a combination of SSDs and SGTs. In addition, the planar structure of SSD and SGT allows for a relatively low-cost device fabrication process as well as offering a high-frequency operation due to low parasitic elements in the devices.

Deposition of Polypyrrole-Carboxylated Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotube Nanohybrid Thin Film for Surface Plasmon Resonance Sensor

Immobilization of the enzyme is the main problem and critical factor in producing high selectivity and sensitivity of a surface plasmon sensor (SPR). This study is aimed at fabricating a uniform polypyrrole (PPy) - Carboxylated Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotube (MWCNT-COOH) nanohybrid film as a mediator, thereby enhancing the functional groups to attach and immobilize the enzymes for the SPR sensor. This nanohybrid thin film of PPy- MWCNT-COOH was electrodeposited on the surface of gold (Au)/chromium (Cr) by chronoamperometry using potentiostat at 0.7V for 5s and 10s. For the first time, the MWCNT-COOH is utilized and combined with conductive polymer PPy to investigate the SPR sensor at two different wavelengths which are 670 nm and 785 nm. The SPR curves and resonance angle are red-shifted and shallower when the time of electropolymerization increases. However, the resonance angle for the 785 nm optical wavelength is blue-shifted and the full-width-at-half-maximum (FWHM) is smaller compared to the 670 nm optical wavelength. The Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) spectrum examination reveals the presence of the required functional groups from the fabricated PPy-MWCNT- COOH nanohybrid thin film to attach the enzyme immobilization in future work. In conclusion, the findings of this research can broaden exciting possibilities for the low-cost fabrication of promising SPR sensors at longer wavelengths.

Biological upcycling of nickel and sulfate as electrocatalyst from electroplating wastewater

Upcycling nickel (Ni) to useful catalyst is an appealing route to realize low-carbon treatment of electroplating wastewater and simultaneously recovering Ni resource, but has been restricted by the needs for costly membranes or consumption of large amount of chemicals in the existing upcycling processes. Herein, a biological upcycling route for synchronous recovery of Ni and sulfate as electrocatalysts, with certain amount of ferric salt (Fe3+) added to tune the product composition, is proposed. Efficient biosynthesis of bio-NiFeS nanoparticles from electroplating wastewater was achieved by harnessing the sulfate reduction and metal detoxification ability of Desulfovibrio vulgaris. The optimal bio-NiFeS, after further annealing at 300 °C, served as an efficient oxygen evolution electrocatalyst, achieving a current density of 10 mA·cm−1 at an overpotential of 247 mV and a Tafel slope of 60.2 mV·dec−1. It exhibited comparable electrocatalytic activity with the chemically-synthesized counterparts and outperformed the commercial RuO2. The feasibility of the biological upcycling approach for treating real Ni-containing electroplating wastewater was also demonstrated, achieving 99.5 % Ni2+removal and 41.0 % SO42− removal and enabling low-cost fabrication of electrocatalyst. Our work paves a new path for sustainable treatment of Ni-containing wastewater and may inspire technology innovations in recycling/ removal of various metal ions.

Influence of Binders on Printability and Battery Performance of Thick 3D-Printed Positive Electrode for Li-Ion Batteries

Nowadays, lithium-ion batteries have been considered to be the superior commercial batteries in the market, thanks to their high energy density (until ca. 250 Wh/kg at cell level) and low fabrication cost (actually < 0.3 Euro/Wh at cell level). However, due to the recent global push for electrification, there is a constant need to further improve battery performance while minimalizing the cost. Besides the development of new battery materials, engineering the electrodes could be a valid solution to meet such demand. By increasing the electrode thickness to 200 µm, the active material loading in the electrode is expected to increase to over 30 wt%, hence enhancing the energy density and limiting the cost at the cell level. Nevertheless, thick electrodes fabricated by conventional coating methods suffer severely from weak mechanical strength and delamination as well as long and highly-tortuous Li-ion diffusion path, sluggish electrochemical kinetics, and poor charge/discharge rate performance. Recently, great attention has gone to 3D printing (additive manufacturing) with the promise to overcome these limitations, thanks to the porous structures of the 3D- printed electrodes.In this work, we present 450 µm thick lithium iron phosphate (LFP) electrodes produced by 3D micro-extrusion with a superior LFP loading of ca. 30 mg/cm2 and a high areal capacity of ca. 4.2 mAh/cm2. Two commercial polymeric binders were employed, including carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT:PSS). It is concluded that both CMC and PEDOT:PSS are essential to obtain well-printed 3D electrodes. While CMC contributes significantly to the mechanical strength of the 3D-printed LFP electrodes, it is of great importance to add PEDOT:PSS to avoid intra-fiber cracks. Furthermore, the electrodes containing both binders have shown significantly improved specific capacity at different C-rates compared to those formulated from either CMC or PEDOT:PSS. Further analyses give insights into charge transfer resistance, tortuosity and electrical conductivity of the investigated electrodes. Additionally, we highlight the difference in the battery performance of 3D-printed electrodes and their standard doctor-bladed counterparts.Reference(1) Kuang, Y.; Chen, C.; Kirsch, D.; Hu, L. Thick Electrode Batteries: Principles, Opportunities, and Challenges. Adv. Energy Mater. 2019, 9 (33), 1901457. https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.201901457.

(Invited) Correlation of Exciton and Charge Carrier Dynamics with the Performance of Metal Halide Perovskite Solar Cells

Perovskite solar cells have been recognized as a newly emerging solar cell with the potential of achieving high efficiency with a low cost fabrication process. In particular, facile solution processed cell fabrication facilitated rapid development of optimum cell structure and composition. Over the last few years, the cell efficiency has exceeded 25%.Highly efficient charge transfer reactions in addition to high charge separation efficiency and swift charge transport with minimum charge recombination are required to improve solar cell performance. Intensive studies have been focused on monitoring photo-induced exciton formation and charge dissociation, charge transport and interfacial charge transfer dynamics including interfacial charge recombination in perovskite solar cells.[1-5] Several parameters have been identified to influence these charge carrier dynamics, and therefore the solar cell performance.[1-5] Clarifying these parameters is extremely important to understand the charge transfer mechanisms to further improve solar cell performance.In this presentation, we will present parameters controlling charge dissociation in metal halide perovskites and their charge separation and recombination dynamics at the perovskite interfaces employing a series of transient absorption and emission spectroscopies. Correlation of the key parameters controlling the exciton and charge carrier dynamics with the solar cell performance will be discussed [1-5].This work was partly supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant (19H02813) and (22H02182), and the Collaborative Research Program of Institute for Chemical Research, Kyoto University (grant number 2023-45 and 2022-99), Japan. We would like to acknowledge supports from the Australia-Japan Foundation for the international collaborative project. We also acknowledge supports from ARC LIEF fund (LE200100051 and LE170100235), Australia and School of Engineering in RMIT University, and Forefront Research Center, Faculty of Science at Osaka University.

A Study of Contact Electrification Process on PVDF–Metal Interface: Effect of β Phase Composition

AbstractRecently, triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) are getting considerable attention as an energy harvesting tool that can convert random mechanical energy into electricity due to the wide material selection, low cost, and easy fabrication. TENGs work by contact electrification on the interface and electrostatic induction on the electrodes when two surfaces contact and separate. Herein, the study of the contact electrification process on the metal–polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) interface is conducted focusing on the effect of β phase content on the electrical properties of the PVDF films. It is found through the EFM and KPFM surface electrical studies that a higher β phase promotes stronger electrostatic interactions and enhances electron‐cloud overlap with the metal coated cantilever tip that leads to higher amount of charge transfer. Additionally, there is overall enhancement of the TENGs electric output performance for a higher β phase containing PVDF films and the maximum electric output of 8.1 V and 12.2 nA is obtained for the TENG made with 79% β phase PVDF film.

Investigation of the Influence of Inner Geometries of the Receiver Tube of a Parabolic Trough Collector System Used for Water Heating

Solar collectors are devices that help to harvest solar thermal radiation and convert into other forms of energy. Because of its low fabrication cost and simple design, the Parabolic Trough Collector (PTC) is one of the finest alternatives for medium-temperature (i.e., in 80°𝐶𝐶-250°𝐶𝐶 range) needs among all types of concentrated solar collectors. The absorber tube or the receiver tube is one of the main critical components of a PTC. Thermal radiation of the sun falling onto a parabolic reflector is reflected to its focal line where the receiver tube is placed. Therefore, the performance of a PTC system significantly depends on Receiver Geometries (RGs). A locally developed PTC system with a new and accurate tracking system was designed and fabricated in the current study and steam generation inside the receiver was considered in the performance analysis. The experimental analysis was performed using seven different RGs. The experiments were carried out by measuring generated steam every 10 minutes for all the RGs, and simultaneously, solar insolation data was taken by a domestic solar Photovoltaic (PV) system with a capacity of 5 kW. The steam generation data was taken only when the power output of the reference solar PV system was ≥ 4kW. Having tested seven different RGs, the researchers were able to improve the steam generation to a maximum of 10.0% compared to the reference geometry using direct experimental data. This was 8.1% in accordance with the statistical approach via multiple linear regression model. A three-dimensional mathematical model for two-phase flow was formulated for a closed domain. Restricting this model into twodimensional geometry, the steam generation process was simulated as a TPF problem using ANSYS Fluent software. The volume fraction profiles clearly show the phase transition, which leads to evaporation and condensation inside the tube.

Thermo-plasmon-assisted all-optical switches based on coupled micro-cavities

Given the major applications of optical switches in the next generation electronics, plasmon assisted all-optical switch is proposed based on plasmonic micro ring arrays covered with the graphene layer. For this purpose, we use a laser writing system to fabricate micro hole arrays and cover them by plasmonic gold thin film via sputtering machine, with chemical vapor deposition method being used to produce graphene layer. After theoretically and experimentally evaluating the plasmonic substrate, we use ellipsometric method to characterize the optical modes of the samples. Furthermore, the all-optical and gated switches response is recorded for the fabricated sample. Our results show phase delay plasmon induced switching as well as thermo-plasmonic affected benefit for the proposed switching structure in the order of 0.29 s (duty cycle). The suggested switch with its low power consumption, small size, and easier and low-cost fabrication process can open new insight into plasmon-assisted all-optical switches.

3D Printed Integrated Sensors: From Fabrication to Applications-A Review.

The integration of 3D printed sensors into hosting structures has become a growing area of research due to simplified assembly procedures, reduced system complexity, and lower fabrication cost. Embedding 3D printed sensors into structures or bonding the sensors on surfaces are the two techniques for the integration of sensors. This review extensively discusses the fabrication of sensors through different additive manufacturing techniques. Various additive manufacturing techniques dedicated to manufacture sensors as well as their integration techniques during the manufacturing process will be discussed. This review will also discuss the basic sensing mechanisms of integrated sensors and their applications. It has been proven that integrating 3D printed sensors into infrastructures can open new possibilities for research and development in additive manufacturing and sensor materials for smart goods and the Internet of Things.

Low-Cost Plant-Based Metal and Metal Oxide Nanoparticle Synthesis and Their Use in Optical and Electrochemical (Bio)Sensors.

Technological progress has led to the development of analytical tools that promise a huge socio-economic impact on our daily lives and an improved quality of life for all. The use of plant extract synthesized nanoparticles in the development and fabrication of optical or electrochemical (bio)sensors presents major advantages. Besides their low-cost fabrication and scalability, these nanoparticles may have a dual role, serving as a transducer component and as a recognition element, the latter requiring their functionalization with specific components. Different approaches, such as surface modification techniques to facilitate precise biomolecule attachment, thereby augmenting recognition capabilities, or fine tuning functional groups on nanoparticle surfaces are preferred for ensuring stable biomolecule conjugation while preserving bioactivity. Size optimization, maximizing surface area, and tailored nanoparticle shapes increase the potential for robust interactions and enhance the transduction. This article specifically aims to illustrate the adaptability and effectiveness of these biosensing platforms in identifying precise biological targets along with their far-reaching implications across various domains, spanning healthcare diagnostics, environmental monitoring, and diverse bioanalytical fields. By exploring these applications, the article highlights the significance of prioritizing the use of natural resources for nanoparticle synthesis. This emphasis aligns with the worldwide goal of envisioning sustainable and customized biosensing solutions, emphasizing heightened sensitivity and selectivity.

Oblique Pyramid Microstructure-Patterned Flexible Sensors for Pressure and Visual Temperature Sensing.

Flexible tactile sensors have garnered considerable attention in diverse fields. Among them, the sensors integrated with multifunctional tactile sensing features can simultaneously detect various stimuli, such as pressure and temperature, and are thus suitable for practical applications. However, integrating multiple sensor modalities within a solitary pixel invariably encounters various limitations encompassing interplay among disparate sensors, intricate structural design demands, and the complexities and high costs associated with fabrication. Herein, we harness a visual sensing mechanism to synergize with electric sensors, thereby realizing a tactile sensor reliant on thermochromic microstructures for simultaneous pressure and temperature sensing. The thermal distribution could be easily displayed by the color change of the sensor, avoiding inference between the sensing units, which is beneficial for low-cost mass fabrication. A capacitor sensor with dual-scale oblique pyramid microstructures in its dielectric layer is used for the pressure sensing function, resulting in improved sensitivity and an extended measurement range. This innovative tactile sensor design offers insights into tactile sensing mechanisms, paving the way for cost-effective, high-performance, and multimodal sensor fabrication.

Advancing understanding of structural, electronic, and magnetic properties in 3d-transition-metal TM-doped α-Ga2O3 (TM = V, Cr, Mn, and Fe): A first-principles and Monte Carlo study

In this paper, we investigated the properties of transition metal (TM)-doped α-Ga2O3 using first-principles calculations and Monte Carlo simulations. α-Ga2O3 is a wide-bandgap semiconductor material with enhanced performance and lower fabrication costs on sapphire substrates compared to β-Ga2O3. Doping with TMs can modify electrical transport, optical absorption, and magnetic properties, yet theoretical studies on this are scarce. Our study focused on V, Cr, Mn, and Fe impurities. We introduced a newly proposed scheme for efficiently determining the ground-state defect configuration during structural relaxation. We adopt a recent, novel image charge correction method to accurately calculate formation enthalpy and thermodynamic transition levels for spin-polarized transition metal ion doping, without employing the empirical dielectric constant. Results showed Cr ions tend to neutral substitutional Ga, while V, Mn, and Fe impurity ions tend to carry a negative charge in common n-type α-Ga2O3. Magnetic moments and spin-splitting impurity levels primarily arise from transition metal impurities and their d orbitals. We used the generalized four-state method to calculate exchange interaction constants between substitution lattice sites and identified (anti) ferromagnetic couplings at specific distances in a 120-atom supercell, which are negligible in total energy calculations. Monte Carlo simulations indicated a Curie temperature of 360 K in n-type α-Ga2O3: Mn system with 12.5% doping, suggesting intrinsic ferromagnetic ordering based on the Heisenberg model. Our study contributes to understanding TM-doped α-Ga2O3 electronic structure and magnetic properties through improved methodologies. The approach can be applied in research involving other TM-doped oxides or wide-bandgap semiconductors.