Extreme Hydrological Events Research Articles

Effect of a Summer Flood on Benthic Macroinvertebrates in a Medium-Sized, Temperate, Lowland River

Floods are naturally occurring extreme hydrological events that affect stream habitats and biota at multiple extents. Benthic macroinvertebrates (BM) are widely used to assess ecological status in rivers, but their resistance and resilience to floods in medium-sized, temperate, lowland rivers in Europe have not been sufficiently studied. In this study, we quantified the effect of a moderate (5-year return period) yet long-lasting and unpredictable flood that occurred in summer 2020 on the BM community of the Jeziorka River in central Poland. To better understand the mechanisms by which the studied flood affected the BM community, we also evaluated the dynamics of hydrological, hydraulic, channel morphology, and water quality conditions across the studied 1300 m long reach. Continuous water level monitoring, stream depth surveying, and discharge measurements. As well, in-situ and lab-based water quality measurements were carried out between March and August 2020. BM communities were sampled three times at eight sites along the reach, once before and twice after the flood. High flow velocities during the flood resulted in stream bed instability leading to sand substrate movement that caused streambed aggradation by up to 0.2 m. Dissolved oxygen and ammonium-nitrogen were major drivers of BM community structure. Taxa richness, abundance, and the BMWP-PL index declined significantly, whereas Shannon evenness and Simpson diversity indices showed no significant change in the first post-flood sampling, as indicated by Kruskal–Wallis and Tukey tests. Non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) analysis showed that community composition was also significantly affected by the flood. Seven weeks after the flood peak (August 2020 sampling), BM communities had fully recovered from the disturbance. The results can serve as a first approximation of the resistance and resilience of BM communities for relevant applications in other medium-sized, low-gradient, temperate rivers.

Removing tributary low-head dams can compensate for fish habitat losses in dammed rivers

Dam removal has been widely used as a river restoration approach; however, the effectiveness of removing low-head dams in tributaries for fish habitat compensation in a dammed river is still poorly understood. One major impediment to examining the ecological effectiveness of low-head dams is the short length of post-dam hydrologic, geomorphic and ecological observations. To circumvent this challenge, we used a one-dimensional hydro-morphodynamic model to simulate the changes in hydrodynamic features and riverbed elevation. The modeled outputs were then incorporated into a fish habitat model to assess the changes of habitat suitability after dam removal. One open question in dam-removal is the effect that extreme hydrological events have on the trajectory of the post-removal hydraulic, geomorphic and habitat change. Here we studied the changes of habitat suitability to a fish species Jinshaia Sinensis (J. Sinensis) in a tributary, where a low-head dam was recently removed, of the Jinsha River in China. Three scenarios of interannual hydrological variations based on observed flow records were simulated. The post-removal simulations showed that the flow sequence influenced the erosion and deposition rate of sediments but had little effect on net changes in bed elevation. After dam removal, upstream incision eroded the deposition sediments and reconnected the riverbed at the dam location within the first post-removal year. Stream hydraulics became more diverse with an increasing of riffles following the morphological response to the dam removal. The continuous changes in stream hydraulics improved the habitat suitability for J. Sinensis, as the percentage of suitable spawning habitat increased from 17% to approximately 68% before and 10 years after dam removal. The study demonstrated that removing a low-head dam can not only reconnect the passage for a migratory fish to migrate upstream tributaries for spawning, but also improve habitat suitability due to the morphological and stream hydrological responses following dam removal.

A Robust Gaussian variogram estimator for cartography of hydrological extreme events

Kriging is used for spatial interpolation of geophysical and hydrological variables. This technique requires the definition of a mathematical function of spatial correlation known as variogram. Extreme value mapping is critical for the analysis of hydrological problems such as multiple risk and disaster damage valuation. However, the formulation of a variogram is complex and the selection of the variogram model is often crucial in the final representation of extreme values. There is some evidence that a variogram estimator may reduce the negative impact of using data samples with outliers. This is an approach that eliminates the term that takes into consideration the squared differences of empirical values in the calculation of a variogram. Known as Cressie–Hawkins Estimator (CH), it is based on considering a Gaussian distribution for the calculation of the variogram. The CH satisfies the main statistical considerations of normality; however, the formulation of kurtosis is not used to guarantee total normality. The present paper modifies the CH, adding the term corresponding to the fourth statistical moment. The numerical example proposed in the literature to evaluate the efficiency of the CH is reproduced, and it is verified that the new variogram (CH-GLo) decreases further the effect of the extreme values in the cartography. CH-GLo is applied to cartography an extreme storm that happened in August 2014 in the city of Queretaro, Mexico. It is concluded that this new variogram formulation is a suitable alternative for mapping extreme values monitored in real-time in urban areas.

Evolution of Dry and Wet Spells Under Climate Change Over North‐Eastern North America

AbstractRisks associated to extreme hydrological conditions, such as floods and droughts, are expected to increase in future climate because of projected changes in precipitation and temperature. Assessing how wet and dry persisting conditions (or spells) will evolve in future climate is a crucial step in the study of extreme hydrological events. Projected changes over the north‐eastern part of North America in the annual number of wet days, wet, and dry spells characteristics (number, duration), and wet spells intensities are analyzed. Two regional climate model ensembles are considered: the multimember ensemble from the Canadian RCM v5 (CRCM5‐LE), and 16 simulations from the NA‐CORDEX multimodel ensemble both using the Representative Concentration Pathway 8.5 (RCP8.5) scenario. Comparison of observed and simulated wet and dry spells characteristics is first performed in present climate (1971–2000). Regional Climate Model (RCM)s tend to generate too many wet days and wet or dry spells resulting in shorter dry spells and slightly longer wet spells. Modeling uncertainties are accounted for a bigger contribution to the bias than internal variability since the multimodel ensemble dispersion is the largest. Throughout the 21st century, both ensembles project significant trends in winter at higher latitudes resulting in increasing wet day frequency, increasing number of wet spell, longer wet spells and shorter dry spells. For other seasons, internal variability of the CRCM5‐LE and differences among the various NA‐CORDEX simulations seems to overwhelm the climate change signal. Wet spell intensities increases are projected for all seasons over almost the entire domain. Globally, wetter climate with potential significant hydrological impacts are expected in many regions.

Quantifying the Uncertainty of the Future Hydrological Impacts of Climate Change: Comparative Analysis of an Advanced Hierarchical Sensitivity in Humid and Semiarid Basins

AbstractComparison and quantification of different uncertainties of future climate change involved in the modeling of a hydrological system are highly important for both hydrological modelers and policy-makers. However, few studies have accurately estimated the relative importance of different sources of uncertainty at different spatiotemporal scales. Here, a hierarchical sensitivity analysis framework (HSAF) incorporated with a variance-based global sensitivity analysis is developed to quantify the spatiotemporal contributions of different uncertainties in hydrological impacts of climate change in two different climatic (humid and semiarid) basins in China. The uncertainty sources include three emission scenarios (ESs), 20 global climate models (GCs), three hydrological models (HMs), and the associated sensitive hydrological parameters (PAs) screened and sampled by the Morris and Latin hypercube sampling methods, respectively. The results indicate that the overall trend of uncertainty is PA > HM > GC > ES, but their uncertainties have discrepancies in projections of different hydrological variables. The HM uncertainty in annual and monthly discharge projections is generally larger than the PA uncertainty in the humid basin than semiarid basin. The PA has greater uncertainty in extreme hydrological event (annual peak discharge) projections than in annual discharge projections for both basins (particularly for the humid basin), but contributes larger uncertainty to annual and monthly discharge projections in the semiarid basin than humid basin. The GC contributes larger uncertainty in all the hydrological variables projections in the humid basin than semiarid basin, while the ES uncertainty is rather limited in both basins. Overall, our results suggest there is greater spatiotemporal variability of hydrological uncertainty in more arid regions.

Environmental Risks Caused by Floods in Built-Up Areas

The article considers the possible consequences of flooding for the ecological state of territories, sets the tasks of risk assessment and prevention of damage from dangerous hydrological processes. The authors discuss possible ecological consequences caused by flooding for ecosystems and built-up areas and suggest methods for risk assessment and risk management in flooded areas. Natural and anthropogenic factors of floods and issues of predictability of hazardous hydrological processes are also considered. The article shows that the risk of a disaster, the initiating factor of which is a flood, occurs when hydro-meteorological, geological and other hazards interact with vulnerability factors of a physical, social, economic and environmental nature. It is proposed to take an extreme hydrological event of low probability as a scenario of a catastrophic event, for example, the historical extreme of the maximum water flow. As an example, we consider the decisions taken to prevent flooding in built-up areas on the example of the Kuban river basin of the Krasnodar territory.

Sediment transport and roughness coefficients generated by flexible vegetation patches in the emergent and submerged conditions in a semiarid alluvial open-channel

In the semiarid environment, low vegetation cover and deforestation on the banks of rivers represent a strong impact on the flow resistance process, altering the interaction of the flow with the banks, one of the conditioning factors of the morphological balance of the river channel. In extreme hydrological events, turbulence and high speeds can cause a marked erosion process at the banks, increasing the sediment yield. This study aimed to monitor water and solid discharges through direct hydrosedimentometric measurements, as well as to estimate, using a simplified model based on force balance, the hydraulic roughness coefficients generated by flexible vegetation element of the Ipomoea pes-caprae species under emergent and submerged conditions. The total annual rainfall for 2019 was 748.5 mm year−1, above the historical mean (642.80 mm year−1). The mean depth (h = 0.24 m) and flow (Ql = 0.15 m3 s−1) rates were highly correlated as a power function (R2 = 0.8041). In general, without specifically considering the effect of vegetation, the flow regime was characterized as turbulent and subcritical flow (Re = 66,634.65 dim. and Fr = 0.16 dim.), respectively. The suspended sediment concentration (CSS), suspended sediment (QSS) and bedload (QBed) discharges presented mean values of 409.41 mg L−1, 6.23 t day−1 and 0.069 t day−1, respectively. The total sediment yield (Yt) was 1.90 t km−2 year−1. The vegetation effect was analyzed on the right (RB) and left (LB) banks, where the stems of I. pes-caprae were concentrated between 0.22 and 0.40 m and 0.66–1.20 m from the banks, respectively. On the RB, the shear (1.0 < Sr < 1.95), free flow (0.27 < Sr < 1.0) and the transition (Sr = 1) zones were identified. On the LB, just emergent condition (Sr < 1.0) was indetified. The following relationship were found between vegetation drag coefficient (C′D), stem Reynolds number (Red), plant density Reynolds number (Rev) and Froude number (Fr) on the RB: C′D (1.22–12.46 m−1); Red (567 < Red < 2224), Rev (1305 < Rev < 35,011) and Fr = 0.14; on the LB: C′D (2.10–1168.29 m−1); Red (57 < Red < 1427), Rev (2615 < Rev < 167,534) and Fr = 0.08. These results demonstrate that the aquatic vegetation directly influences the river dynamics; the density vegetation having a hydraulic impact on the flow transport capacity, that is, as the C′D increases, it increases the resistance of the vegetation to the flow and decreases the capacity of transport of sediments.

Modeling the response of soil moisture to climate variability in the Mediterranean region

Abstract. Future climate scenarios for the Mediterranean region indicate a possible decrease in annual precipitation associated with an intensification of extreme rainfall events in the coming years. A major challenge in this region is to evaluate the impacts of changing precipitation patterns on extreme hydrological events such as droughts and floods. For this, it is important to understand the impact of climate change on soil moisture since it is a proxy for agricultural droughts, and the antecedent soil moisture condition plays a key role on runoff generation. This study focuses on 10 sites, located in southern France, with available soil moisture, temperature, and precipitation observations for a 10-year time period. Soil moisture is simulated at each site at the hourly time step using a model of soil water content. The sensitivity of the simulated soil moisture to different changes in precipitation and temperature is evaluated by simulating the soil moisture response to temperature and precipitation scenarios generated using a delta change method for temperature and a stochastic model (the Neyman–Scott rectangular pulse model) for precipitation. Results show that soil moisture is more impacted by changes in precipitation intermittence than precipitation intensity and temperature. Overall, increased temperature and precipitation intensity associated with more intermittent precipitation leads to decreased soil moisture and an increase in the annual number of days with dry soil moisture conditions. In particular, a temperature increase of +4 ∘C combined with a decrease of annual rainfall between 10 % and 20 %, corresponding to the current available climate scenarios for the Mediterranean, lead to a lengthening of the drought period from June to October with an average of +28 d of soil moisture drought per year.

Climate Change Adaptations for Food Security in Vulnerable Areas of the Egyptian Nile—For Tackling the Overlooked Nexus Hazards of Hydrological Extremes and Waste Pollutions

The Nile Delta has been suffering from complex environmental hazards caused by climate change and human-induced evolvements, which have led to adverse impacts on national food security. An unfavourable nexus between solid waste management issues and extreme hydrological events is examined mainly through extensive field investigation and literature research, which is an emerging issue affecting food safety and security whilst still being overlooked so far. The findings not only reveal the significance of the emerging issue but also support our proposed recommendations in the policy/legislation and technology sphere. This interdisciplinary research employs a holistic lens that covers diverse perspectives, including systemic problems, wastewater treatment, and environmental neuroscience, to explore the relationship between food, climate change, water management, and waste pollution, and to achieve novel discoveries for the practical adaptations of Egypt’s challenges.

Modeling of Extreme Hydrological Events in the Baksan River Basin, the Central Caucasus, Russia

High mountain areas are prone to extreme hydrological events, and their study is especially important in the context of ongoing intensive deglaciation. In this research, a model “chain” consisting of a hydrodynamic model and a runoff formation model is adopted to simulate a glacier lake outburst flood (GLOF) from Bashkara Lake (the Central Caucasus, Russia) and its effect on downstream. In addition to an actual GLOF event that occurred on 1 September 2017 and led to casualties and significant destruction in the Adylsu and Baksan Rivers valleys, possible scenarios for the re-outburst of the lake are considered. The hydrographs of the outburst and the downstream movement of the flood wave along the Adylsu River valley are estimated using STREAM_2D two-dimensional hydrodynamic model. The water discharges in the entire river network of the Baksan River are assessed using the ECOMAG (ECOlogical Model for Applied Geophysics) runoff formation model. The output flood hydrograph from the hydrodynamic model is set as additional input into the Baksan River runoff formation model in the upper reaches of the Adylsu River. As a result of the simulations, estimates for the contribution of GLOFs and precipitation to an increase in peak discharge along the Baksan River were obtained. The actual outburst flood contributed 45% and precipitation 30% to the peak flow in the Baksan River at the mouth of the Adylsu River (10 km from the outburst site). In Tyrnyauz (40 km from the outburst site), the contributions of the outburst flood and precipitation were equal and, in Zayukovo (70 km from the outburst site), the outburst flood contributed only 20% to the peak flow, whereas precipitation contributed 44%. Similar calculations were made for future potential re-outburst flood, taking into account climatic changes with an increase in air temperatures of 2 °C, an increase in precipitation of 10% in winter and a decrease of 10% in summer. The maximum discharge of the re-outburst flood in the Adylsu River mouth, according to model estimations, will be approximately three times less than the discharge of the actual outburst on 1 September 2017 and can contribute up to 18% of the peak discharge in the Baksan River at the confluence.

Using Integrated Hydrological Models to Assess the Impacts of Climate Change on Discharges and Extreme Flood Events in the Upper Yangtze River Basin

Amongst the impacts of climate change, those arising from extreme hydrological events are expected to cause the greatest impacts. To assess the changes in temperature and precipitation and their impacts on the discharge in the upper Yangtze Basin from pre-industrial to the end of 21st century, four hydrological models were integrated with four global climate models. Results indicated that mean discharge was simulated to increase slightly for all hydrological models forced by all global climate models during 1771–1800 and 1871–1900 relative to the 1971–2000 reference period, whereas the change directions in mean discharge were not consistent among the four global climate models during 2070–2099, with increases from HadGEM2-ES and MIROC5, and decreases from GFDL-ESM2M and IPSL-CM5A-LR. Additionally, our results indicated that decreases in precipitation may always result in the decrease in mean discharge, but increases in precipitation did not always lead to increases in discharge due to high temperature rise. The changes in extreme flood events with different return intervals were also explored. These extreme events were projected to become more intense and frequent in the future, which could have potential devastating impacts on the society and ecosystem in this region.

Flow Redistribution at Bridge Contractions in Compound Channel for Extreme Hydrological Events and Implications for Sediment Scour

This study investigates the flood flow characteristics in a compound channel subject to both lateral contraction (caused by bridge abutment/embankment) and vertical contraction (caused by bridge deck submergence) at bridge sites. Three abutment setback distances and three pressure flow types [free surface (FS), submerged orifice (SO) and overtopping (OT)] are tested. The results show that turbulence structures in the approach channel remained the same irrespective of downstream obstruction. However, lesser abutment setback from the main channel led to greater flow acceleration as the flow approached the bridge section, where SO flow had the highest flow intensity and FS flow had the lowest. At a bridge contraction, the distributions of flow velocity, turbulence intensity, and Reynolds shear stress are significantly affected by the type of pressure flow and the extent of contraction. Enclosed counterclockwise secondary circulating flows in the main channel may occur for a combination of long or medium setback abutments and a FS flow, while other conditions usually feature open-ended upward flows due to flow relief. The strong downslope flow component detected at the main channel bank has a noticeable bank erosion capability. The bed shear stress, which is an indicator of sediment scour, is highlighted by apparent peak zones at the main channel bank and abutment toe. Finally, clear relationships between turbulence intensity, unit discharge ratio, and lateral contraction length are found. In general, normalized turbulence intensities on the floodplain and in the main channel can be used to assess the contribution of macroturbulence to the final bed topography after scour.

Assessing Sediment Pulse during an Extreme Hydrological Event in the Alaknanda Basin, Northwestern Himalaya, India

ABSTRACT In the year 2013, the Northwestern Himalaya witnessed an extreme hydrological event that severely affected the upper Ganga Basin. The unexpected high sediment mobilisation in the basin affected the human population, infrastructure, and ecology in several reaches of the Ganga river and its tributaries. In an exceedingly affected reach, the Kedarnath valley, a considerable sediment volume (~ 26243 x 104 m3) was mobilised during the 2013 extreme hydrological event. In the Srinagar valley, up to 50 x 104 m3 of legacy sediment was washed away during the same event. This sediment mobilisation generated sediment pulses in the affected region, which is assessed through remote sensing, field observations and existing literature, in the Kedarnath and Srinagar valleys. Results show that the evolution of translative, dispersive, and their combined sediment pulse pattern in both selected reaches of the upper Ganga Basin. The mountainous region of the upper Ganga basin has very few monitoring stations observing sediment movement, and data from such stations are mostly unavailable due to which our understanding of the sediment movement in the Himalaya remains very poor. Therefore, it is suggested that there is a need for detailed studies of the sediment transport mechanism in the Himalayan river basins especially during such extreme hydrological events when large volume of sediment is mobilised.

Establishing Legal &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;Force Majeure&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt; Case for the Interruption of Hydro Energy Supply Related to an Extreme Hydrological Drought Event

The management of water resources and specifically the energy supply from hydropower systems are strongly affected by drought events. This paper is devoted to the unfolding of legal consequences caused by an extreme hydrological drought event. The legal litigation occurred when – due to a severe deficit of water – the hydropower company that manages the hydro energy resources over the entire territory of Romania was unable to deliver the amount of electricity stipulated in the power purchase agreements. The studypresents an extensive statistical analysis of extreme hydrological drought events occurrence, using the threshold level method. The statistical analysis was applied on large historical records of the flow rates (50-90 years) and revealed the occurrence of extreme drought events, i.e. extremely low occurrence frequency phenomena. The characteristics of the historical data were studied to highlight the area where the forecast normally used in the hydro generation planning is not possible. In order to evaluate the occurrence of extreme drought phenomena, the natural monthly and annually flows of the Danube and other seven major interior rivers in Romania (Argeș, Bistrița, Olt, Lotru, Sebeș, Someș, Siret and Raul Mare) were analyzed, reflecting fairly a general picture of the flow distribution on the entire territory. The analyzed cases refer to periods when – due to a severe deficit of water – the Romanian hydropower company was unable to generate electricity according to the power purchase agreements (PPA). The results of the statistical analysis were further used as the base for the legal cases that confirmed the <i>force majeure </i>situations claimed by the hydropower company.

Numerical Analysis of Settlement Response of Shallow Footing Subjected to Heavy Rainfall and Flood Events

The US and many parts around the world have experienced prolonged periods of heavy rainfall, severe floods, and droughts over the past 50 years. This study investigates the impacts of extreme hydrological events such as heavy rainfall and flood on the settlement behavior of continuous footing installed in unsaturated soil using a coupled Geotechnical-Hydrological finite element software, PLAXIS 2D. Initially, the effect of different degrees of saturation on the settlement behavior of the continuous footing of widths 1.5 m, 3.0 m, and 4.5 m was analyzed by applying a mechanical load. Then the settlement behavior of the footing was analyzed by applying heavy rainfall of intensity 102 mm/day for six days. Finally, the settlement behavior of the footing was analyzed by applying a flood head of 2.5 meters for seven days. The results indicated that the wetting front movement during heavy rainfall and flooding led to the weakening of soil strength and stiffness and induced additional settlements. The additional settlement induced by the flood was significantly higher than the heavy rainfall. The differential settlement was higher when the rainfall was applied on one side of the footing. The rebound of the elastic settlement was uniquely noticed when the flood head receded with time. The results indicated that not all the settlements were induced by the soil saturation but also due to the hydrostatic loading due to the flood head. The settlements induced by the flooding exceeded the allowable settlement of 25 mm, resulting in failure. These additional settlements caused by heavy rainfall and flood will lead to poor serviceability of the structures and cause the failure of the footing.

Extreme value analysis dilemma for climate change impact assessment on global flood and extreme precipitation

A reliable estimation of hydrological extremes with potentially severe socio-economic impacts is of crucial importance for efficient planning and design of hydraulic structures. Extreme value theory provides a firm theoretical foundation for the statistical modelling of extreme hydrological events. The dilemma in the modelling is on whether to use block maxima (BM) or peak-over-threshold (POT) method, each with its own cons and pros. It remains unexplored to what extent future projected changes in extreme hydrological events are influenced by the method choice, especially when some simplifications are made to lessen the computational burden for large-scale studies. This study addresses this research question by a comparative analysis between the BM and POT methods on future climate change impact on global flood and extreme precipitation. The extreme precipitation analysis is performed using 24 CMIP5 general circulation models (GCMs), while the flood analysis is based on a multi-model ensemble of 20 members including five global impact models forced by four CMIP5 GCMs. The results reveal that the BM and POT methods agree on the sign of changes in flood and extreme precipitation intensities, but disagree on the magnitude. The discrepancy between the BM and POT results increases with event extremity. The difference also varies with season, where the difference in the global land area with increasing signals peaks in winter at the rates of 11% for extreme precipitation and in summer at the rates of 3.5% for flood.

Drought or Wet Assessment of Daily Rainfall Pattern of the Budhi Gandaki River Basin, Nepal: Standardized Precipitation Index Approach using Probabilistic Model

Background: Rainfall is a natural phenomenon. Dramatic changes in the rainfall pattern lead to extreme climatic or hydrological events like flash floods, or floods, landslides or severe drought events at any parts of the world.&#x0D; Objective: The objective of this study aims to perform analysis of drought/ wet for fifteen meteorological /hydrological stations distributed over the Budhi Gandaki River Basin, Nepal. &#x0D; Materials and Methods: The Kolmogorov-Simonov test, Anderson-Darling test and Chi-square test are used for testing of the hypothesis of goodness of fit supported by the q-q plot (or p-p plot), cumulative distribution function plot and probability density function plot. The standardized precipitation index is a widely used to develop the index to monitor the dryness/wetness in a given day.&#x0D; Results: Johnson SB distribution and Weibull distribution were fitted to the daily rainfall across the fifteen stations.&#x0D; Conclusion: There were some episodes of moderate drought events across six stations. Similarly, there were a moderate type of wetness across five stations. The rest of the stations had a majority of near normal days out of 13514 days.&#x0D; Supplementary Material avialable here https://doi.org/10.3126/njs.v4i0.33499

Panorama geral sobre dados hidrológicos com ênfase em eventos hidrológicos extremos

Knowledge depends on the existence of data. Modern hydrology has been primarily based on quantitative data from gauging stations. However, other sources may provide data relevant to hydrology progress as demonstrated by researchers since the 1970s. The general picture on the subject highlights the lack of standard terminologies for data types and sources, which can lead to misunderstandings. Besides, there is still no consensus on the use of data from sources other than monitoring stations. In this context, in the present study, we suggested standard denomination for data and their sources. We classified from the recorded characteristics as systematic data and non systematic data. We also classified the data sources according to the origin: instrumental in-situ evidence, orbital instrumental evidence, physical evidence and documentary evidence. Considering the relevance of non-systematic data, mainly concerning extreme hydrological events, we suggested the use of both data – systematic and non systematic - applying the data triangulation method.

Integrated Framework for Assessment of Time-Variant Flood Fragility of Bridges Using Deep Learning Neural Networks

AbstractThe increasing intensity and frequency of extreme hydrological events poses a significant threat to the safety of transportation infrastructure across the globe. To reduce the failure risk ...

Sediment and soil organic carbon loss during continuous extreme scouring events on the Loess Plateau

AbstractThe frequency of extreme hydrological events highlights the need to establish an empirical model of soil organic carbon (SOC) loss based on hydraulic characteristics. This model would aid in understanding and mitigating excessive SOC loss (SOCL) on the Loess Plateau, where severe erosion occurs. To construct such a model, we established five study plots of similar slope in the Loess Plateau: four experimental vegetation successional communities and one bare land control. An in situ field scouring experiment was carried out to measure and analyze soil erosion, hydraulic parameters, and SOCL. The first scour saw the greatest increase in sediment concentration (0.007 g ml−1) and sediment amount (2.886 kg) and the most significant SOC loss (8.361 g). Further scouring in each plot decreased total SOCL. The factors affecting SOCL included soil erodibility (median particle size, sediment concentration, total sediment loss, SOC concentration, total SOCL) and hydrodynamics (runoff depth, power, velocity, and shear force), which accounted for 93 and 29% of SOCL. Flow velocity, especially 2 m from the bottom of the transition section (L2), was most closely correlated to SOC concentration (0.681; P &lt; .05). Flow velocity affects selective migration of sand in sediment, thus affecting SOC concentration. We based our sediment and SOCL model on observed hydrodynamics, including V2 (flow velocity at L2) in said model. Predicted values supported measured values more precisely (R2 &gt; .98). Our findings and developed model aid in predicting SOCL on slopes during severe erosion events.