Fat Extraction Research Articles

Valorization of waste chicken skin for conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) production: optimization using response surface methodology.

The valorization of waste chicken skin fat (WCSF) for conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) production was performed by photoisomerization and optimized the process conditions for high CLA production by response surface methodology. The fat extraction yield from waste chicken skin was approximately 52%. The linoleic acid content of the fat obtained from waste chicken skin was increased by the fractionation process approximately 2 times, up to 52%. Optimum iodine amount and processing time for predicted maximum total CLA amount were determined as 0.87% and 116.36h, respectively. The maximum total CLA amount was predicted and produced experimentally as 32.14% and 29.01%, respectively. Additionally, iodine amount, processing time, and their interaction significantly affected the amount and variety of produced CLA isomers. The results indicated that dominant isomers produced by photoisomerization of WCSF were trans, trans isomers. However, the amount of cis 9, trans 11 and trans 10, cis 12 CLA isomers could be more increased by optimizing the production parameters. The present study indicated that waste chicken skin could be valorized in CLA production by photoisomerization and obtained high value-added product, and also a more economical and faster CLA production could be realized.

Application of facial fat injections

<p class="a0">Autologous fat has become an ideal filler material due to its easy acquisition, good compatibility and no foreign body sensation after transplantation. In recent years, autologous fat has been widely used in facial rejuvenation or repair and reconstruction, and achieved satisfactory results, which is also in line with the currently advocated minimally invasive treatment direction. Autologous fat transplantation mainly includes fat extraction, separation, transplantation and postoperative treatment, each of which can affect the activity of fat particles and/or fat retention rate after transplantation. In this paper, the application of autologous fat in facial rejuvenation or reconstruction is described in detail.</p>

In Vitro Digestibility of Hay Mangrove with Native Grass

Forage is the main component of feed given to ruminants. Local feed ingredients that can be used are mangroves and native grass. This study used the Randomized Block Design (RBD) experimental method with 4 = four treatments and 5-five replications. The treatments composed of Hay Mangrove Leaves and Native grass as follows: A (60 + 40%), B (50 + 50%), C (40 + 60%) and D (30 + 70%). Data were analyzed using General Liner Model and continued with Duncan's Multiple Range Tests (DMRT). The results showed that the treatment had a highly significant effect (P<0.01) on the digestibility of crude fiber, crude fat, and NFE. The best ratio of the combination of mangrove leaf hay and field grass based on the in-vitro digestibility was C treatment (40% mangrove hay + 60% field grass). The digestibility value of each crude fiber was 61.24%, crude fat was 61.43% and NFE was 62.30%. This study aims to evaluate the in-vitro digestibility of crude fiber, crude fat, and Nitrogen-Free Extract (NFE) of hay mangrove leave and native grass.

Cell-free fat extract attenuates osteoarthritis via chondrocytes regeneration and macrophages immunomodulation

BackgroundThe prevalence of osteoarthritis (OA) is increasing, yet clinically effective and economical treatments are unavailable. We have previously proposed a cell-free fat extract (CEFFE) containing multiple cytokines, which possessed antiapoptotic, anti-oxidative, and proliferation promotion functions, as a “cell-free” strategy. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the therapeutic effect of CEFFE in vivo and in vitro.MethodsIn vivo study, sodium iodoacetate-induced OA rats were treated with CEFFE by intra-articular injections for 8 weeks. Behavioral experiments were performed every two weeks. Histological analyses, anti-type II collagen, and toluidine staining provided structural evaluation. Macrophage infiltration was assessed by anti-CD68 and anti-CD206 staining. In vitro study, the effect of CEFFE on macrophage polarization and secretory factors was evaluated by flow cytometry, immunofluorescence, and quantitative reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). The effect of CEFFE on cartilage regeneration was accessed by cell counting kit-8 assay and qRT-PCR. The generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and levels of ROS-related enzymes were investigated by qRT-PCR and western blotting.ResultsIn rat models with sodium iodoacetate (MIA)-induced OA, CEFFE increased claw retraction pressure while decreasing bipedal pressure in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, CEFFE promoted cartilage structure restoration and increased the proportion of CD206+ macrophages in the synovium. In vitro, CEFFE decreased the proportion of CD86+ cells and reduced the expression of pro-inflammatory factors in LPS + IFN-γ induced Raw 264.7. In addition, CEFFE decreased the expression of interleukin-6 and ADAMTs-5 and promoted the expression of SOX-9 in mouse primary chondrocytes. Besides, CEFFE reduced the intracellular levels of reactive oxygen species in both in vitro models through regulating ROS-related enzymes.ConclusionsCEFFE inhibits the progression of OA by promoting cartilage regeneration and limiting low-grade joint inflammation.Graphical abstract

Optimized Identification of Triacylglycerols in Milk by HPLC-HRMS

This work has developed an optimized workflow for the targeted analysis of triacylglycerols (TAGs) in milk by liquid chromatography coupled with a Q-Exactive Orbitrap mass spectrometer. First, the effects of resolution (17,500; 35,000; 70,000; 140,000) and automatic gain control target (AGC, from 2×104, 2×105, 1×106, and 3×106) have been optimized with the goal to minimize the injection time, maximize the number of scans, and minimize the mass error. Then, the flow rate of the liquid chromatography system was also optimized by maximizing the number of theoretical plates. The resulting optimized parameters consisted of a flow rate of 200 μL/min, mass resolution of 35,000, and AGC target of 2×105. Such optimal conditions were applied for targeted TAG analysis of milk fat extracts. Up to 14 target triglycerides in milk fat were identified performing a data-dependent HPLC-HRMS-MS2 experiment (t-SIM-ddMS2). The findings reported here can be helpful for MS-based lipidomic workflows and targeted milk lipid analysis.

Rendering of Beef Tallow for Biodiesel Production: Microwave versus Boiling Water and Acetone Fat Extraction

Biodiesel can substitute for conventional diesel fuel and contribute to the decarbonization of the transportation sector. To improve biodiesel sustainability and decrease production costs, low-grade fats such as non-edible animal fats must be used. Animal fats are mixed with tissues which must be removed before alcoholysis to avoid biodiesel contamination with nitrogen and phosphorus-containing compounds. Biodiesel was produced by the methanolysis of beef tallow and beef tallow/soybean oil mixtures over calcium heterogeneous catalysts obtained by the calcination of scallop shells. The tallow from fatty bovine tissues was extracted using boiling water, dry microwave treatment, and acetone extraction. The thermal stability and the moisture content of the extracted fats were evaluated by thermogravimetry. The thermograms of fats revealed that microwave treatment, which was faster (3 min instead of 40 min for boiling water and 240 min for acetone extraction) and had the lowest energy consumption, led to a dry fat with a thermal stability analogous to that of fats extracted with boiling water and acetone. All the extracted fats behaved similarly in the methanolysis reaction over calcium catalyst, with biodiesel yield (61–62%) being 30% lower than the analogous obtained from soybean oil (88%). Co-processing the extracted tallow with soybean oil overcomes the drawback related to the low-grade fats.

Cell-Free Extracts from Human Fat Tissue with a Hyaluronan-Based Hydrogel Attenuate Inflammation in a Spinal Cord Injury Model through M2 Microglia/Microphage Polarization.

Treatment for spinal cord injuries (SCIs) is often ineffective because SCIs result in a loss of nerve tissue, glial scar formation, local ischemia and secondary inflammation. The current promising strategy for SCI is the combination of bioactive materials and cytokines. Bioactive materials support the injured spinal cord, stabilize the morphology, and avoid excessive inflammatory responses. Fat extract (FE) is a cell-free liquid component containing a variety of cytokines extracted from human fat tissue using mechanical methods. In this research, a biocompatible HAMC (hyaluronan and methylcellulose) loaded with FE is used to treat a model of spinal cord contusion in mice. The composite not only inhibits death of neuro- and vascular cells and leads to the preservation of neural and vascular structure, but also modulates the inflammatory phenotype of macrophages in the locally injured region. Specifically, FE promotes the polarization of macrophages from an inflammatory M1 phenotype to an anti-inflammatory M2 phenotype. During the screening of the involved pathways, it is corroborated that activation of the STAT6/Arg-1 signaling pathway is involved in macrophage M2 polarization. In summary, FE is a promising treatment for SCI, as it is easy to obtain, nonimmunogenic, and effective.

Gongronema latifolium Benth. leaves (Uteze) ameliorate malaria infection in Plasmodium berghei-infected mice

Herbs are vital sources of bioactive compounds. This study evaluates the antimalarial, antioxidant, phytochemical and nutritional properties of Gongronema latifolium Benth. (Uteze) leaves. Pulverized dry leaves sample were macerated in hexane, methanol, ethanol and distilled water to obtain their respective extracts. The antimalarial efficacy of these extracts was assessed in male Swiss albino mice infected intraperitoneally with chloroquine-sensitive Plasmodium berghei NK65, using the chemo-suppressive, prophylactic and mean survival time (MST) assays. Phytochemical and proximate analyses were assessed by standard protocols. The antioxidant capacity of the extracts was analyzed using DPPH radical scavenging and ferrous ion chelating assays. From the results, the plant had significant (p &lt; 0.05) antimalarial activity compared to the infected untreated control. The chemo- suppressive activity of the extracts declined accordingly; ethanol (46.34%) &gt; methanol (43.16%) &gt; aqueous (32.24%), while their prophylactic activity declined in the order of aqueous (40.25%) &gt; ethanol (38.99%) &gt; methanol (26.94%). Only MST in the four-day chemo-suppressive assay was significant (p &lt; 0.05) compared to the infected untreated control. Tannins, alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, phenolics, cardiac glycosides and proanthocyanidins were detected in reasonable quantities in the plant. The plant also had antioxidant activity as the aqueous extract (IC50 48.50 ± 0.42) scavenged DPPH radicals better, while methanol extract (IC50 21.15 ± 0.33) chelated ferrous ion radicals more compared to other extracts. Meanwhile, the percentage nutritional composition of the plant was moisture (6.23 ± 0.01), total ash (2.22 ± 0.02), crude fat (16.32 ± 0.04), crude fibre (1.04 ± 0.01), crude protein (9.33 ± 0.58) and nitrogen free extract (64.85 ± 0.63). In conclusion, the antimalarial activity of Gongronema latifolium Benth. (Uteze) leaves could be due to its rich phytochemical and nutritional properties.

Towards a sustainable waste-to-energy pathway to pequi biomass residues: Biochar, syngas, and biodiesel analysis

The waste-to-energy (WTE) valorization pathway of Caryocar brasiliense (pequi) seeds was investigated via pyrolysis, gasification, and transesterification to understand its potential as biochar, syngas, and biodiesel. First, the pyrolysis (300–700 °C) was conducted in N2 atmosphere for pequi seeds (PS) and pequi seeds without its extractives (PSWE), characterizing its biochar properties. The PSWE was then gasified at 1000 °C under O2/N2, O2/CO2/N2 and O2/H2O/N2 atmospheres to evaluate the characteristics of the producer gas. The PS extractives were then transesterified and characterized for biodiesel production. Finally, a multiple-criteria decision analysis assessed the PS products’ potential within the thermochemical routes. The results evidenced better biochar (up to 22.29% HHV enhancement, higher mass and energy yield, up to 75.9 and 85.5% reduction of O/C and H/C, respectively, and enriched N content) via PSWE pyrolysis than PS considering biofuel application and optimistic perceptions for soil amendment. This indicates that the preceding extraction of vegetal fat from PS strengthens the WTE by including further processing of extracted oil. The produced syngas under O2/H2O/N2 gasification atmosphere showed better applicability as a biofuel (16.37 MJ·kg−1 lower heating value, 107.33% cold gas efficiency, and 113.55% carbon conversion efficiency) with up to 24% higher success rate. The transesterification of the extractives revealed its potential (98% conversion rate) for use as feedstock for in situ power generation, or blended for biodiesel production. The results provide insights into the circular economy in agro-extractivist communities that may support Brazil’s small and medium agro-food industries with their energy demands.

Розчинність протеїну кормів як індикатор перетравності і доступності поживних речовин в раціонах бугайців

The research was conducted on steppe red bulls with duodenal and ileocecal anastomoses when feeding isoenergetic, isoprotein hay-concentrate diets with different levels of soluble protein (SP) and rumen degradable protein (RDP). We studied the transformation of dry matter (DM), organic matter (OM), crude protein (CP), crude ash (CA), crude fat (CF), crude fiber (CF) and nitrogen-free extractives (NFE) separately in a complex stomach, small (SI) and large (LI) parts of the intestine. Assimilation of protein by animals was assessed by the amount of it digested in SI, and unproductive costs — by the part of nitrogen in the urine. Diets consisted of hay, peas and mineral supplements. Different amounts of SP in the diets were achieved by feeding natural pea (control) or pea grilled at a temperature of +105°C (experiment). When feeding a diet with a reduced level of SP and RDP, the apparent intensity of digestion decreased, which was manifested in a slightly smaller amount of feed consumed, and in a smaller number of duodenal and ileocecal chyme. In a complex stomach, the CP digestibility of the experimental diet with a reduced level of SP was 10% lower. In the control diet with a high level of SP, more CP was degraded in rumen and more ammonium nitrogen was supplied to SI. The availability of CP for digestion in SI on the experimental diet was 5.8% higher, against control, with 8–10% higher digestibility of DM, OM and CP, but lower digestibility of CA and CF. In LI, the digestibility of nutrients in the studied diets was multidirectional. A significant amount of dietary protein was depreciated in the control diet with a high level of SP due to a 40% increase in urinary nitrogen excretion.

Nutrient Content of Pleurotus pulmonarius (Fr.) Quel. Grown on Some Local Lignocellulosic Wastes

The aim of study as to determine the effects of some composts on the nutritional value of Pleurotus pulmonarius (Fr.) Quel. The energy, dry matter, moisture, crude protein, fat, ash, organic matter, and nitrogen free extract were 311.3-313.9 (kcal 100 g-1), 91.8-92.5, 7.5-8.2, 27.3-38.6, 1.5-1.9, 5.3-6.4, 35.9-46.8 and 86.0-87.1 (g 100 g-1) of dry weight, respectively. The contents of polymeric substance were determined 13.6-16.2% of cellulose, 20.4-21.8% of hemicellulose and 0.1-0.3% of lignin. It was observed that the crude fat, energy, lignin and hemicellulose contents of P. pulmonarius were not statistically significant depending on the substrates used in the culture (p&gt;0.05), but there were variations in other nutrients (p

Comparison of analytical methods for the fatty acid profile in ewes' milk.

Studies comparing methodologies for fatty acids are very important, since they can influence the quality and final quantification of the lipid fraction. Objective—to compare different extraction methods for total lipids and to evaluate the effect of these methodologies on the quantitative composition of fatty acids in milk of lactating ewes raised in tropical pastures. The methodologies used were simple direct transesterification, using the HPLC grade organic solvent n-hexane, Bligh; Dyer (cold extraction, extracting mixture proportions 5, 10, and 15 mL in a ratio of 2:1:1 (v/v/v) of chloroform-methanol-water). The fatty acid methyl esters were separated by gas chromatography coupled with a flame ionization detector (GC-FID). The results show that there was no significant difference (p <0.05) in the total lipid content between the extraction methods. However, the Bligh’s method; Dyer obtained the best yield of lipids to be extracted from ewe’s milk, since the volume with 15 mL of the extraction solution was able to identify 87% of the chromatographic peaks. It was also observed that ewe’s milk has a higher percentage of palmitic, stearic and oleic fatty acids, with percentages of 20.1%, 15.5% and 33.1%, respectively. Therefore, an extraction mixture with a volume of 15 mL used in this study may be an alternative to perform the extraction of milk fat from high lactating ewes in tropical pastures as a routine method, as it expresses the best lipid content of this food.

Cell-Free Fat Extract Prevents Tail Suspension-Induced Bone Loss by Inhibiting Osteocyte Apoptosis.

Introduction: As the space field has developed and our population ages, people engaged in space travel and those on prolonged bed rest are at increasing risk for bone loss and fractures. Disuse osteoporosis occurs frequently in these instances, for which the currently available anti-osteoporosis agents are far from satisfactory and have undesirable side effects. CEFFE is a cell-free fraction isolated from nanofat that is enriched with a variety of growth factors, and we aim to investigate its potential therapeutic effects on disuse osteoporosis. Methods: A tail suspension–induced osteoporosis model was applied in this study. Three weeks after tail suspension, CEFFE was intraperitoneally injected, and PBS was used as a control. The trabecular and cortical bone microstructures of the tibia in each group were assessed by μCT after 4 weeks of administration. Osteocyte lacunar-canalicularity was observed by HE and silver staining. In vitro, MLO-Y4 cell apoptosis was induced by reactive oxygen species (ROSUP). TUNEL staining and flow cytometry were used to detect apoptosis. CCK-8 was used to detect cell proliferation, and Western blotting was used to detect MAPK signaling pathway changes. Results: CEFFE increased the bone volume (BV/TV) and trabecular number (Tb.N) of the trabecular bone and increased the thickness of the cortical bone. HE and silver staining results showed that CEFFE reduced the number of empty lacunae and improved the lacuna-canalicular structure. CEFFE promoted osteocyte proliferative capacity in a dose-dependent manner. CEFFE protected MLO-Y4 from apoptosis by activating the serine/threonine-selective protein kinase (ERK) signaling pathways. Conclusion: CEFFE attenuated immobilization-induced bone loss by decreasing osteocyte apoptosis. CEFFE increased the survival of osteocytes and inhibited osteocyte apoptosis by activating the ERK signaling pathway in vitro.

The effect of dietary Echium oil supplementation on the fatty acid profile, omega-3 fatty acid content and subcutaneous fat quality of pork

This study evaluated the effect of five dietary oils - palm (Control), soya, linseed, fish and Echium oil at a 1% inclusion level- on growth performance, feed efficiency, subcutaneous fat quality and fatty acid composition of subcutaneous fat. The trial consisted of 60 gilts, randomly allocated to ten groups with six animals per pen. Dietary treatment had no significant effect on growth performance, feed efficiency or lean meat content of pigs. All colour parameters, extractable fat content, fat free dry matter, and moisture content of subcutaneous fat were unaffected by dietary treatment. The only significant difference for fat firmness was between the control treatment containing palm oil (Bergafat HPL 106) and the linseed oil treatment (P = 0.049), with the control producing the hardest fat. The iodine value was significantly lower in the control treatment (P < 0.001). Both the Echium and linseed oil treatments increased the ratio of polyunsaturated fatty acid:saturated fatty acid (PUFA:SFA) and decreased the omega-6:omega-3 (n-6:n-3) ratio of subcutaneous fat. Stearidonic acid concentration of subcutaneous fat was the highest (P < 0.001) for the Echium oil treatment (0.21%). The fish oil treatment had significantly higher levels (P < 0.001) of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosapentaenoic acid (DPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and total EPA+DPA+DHA than all other treatments. The Echium oil treatment resulted in significantly (P < 0.001) higher EPA, DPA and EPA+DPA+DHA levels in subcutaneous fat than the linseed oil, soya oil and control treatments. The result suggests that Echium oil can be used in pig diets to improve the long chain n-3 fatty acid content of subcutaneous fat.

Chemical profile colostrum, quality refrigerated and frozen milk of santa inês sheep

ABSTRACT: The chemical composition of Santa Inês sheep colostrum was evaluated, as well as chilled milk (zero to 240 hours) and frozen milk for up to 70 days. Results of chemical composition (fat, protein, casein, lactose, total and degreased dry extract) and colostrum somatic cell count (SCC) were presented descriptively. The results of chemical composition and SCC and total bacterial count (TBC) of chilled and frozen milk were evaluated in a completely randomized design, the repetition of milk collection days and the treatments of the times when the milk was chilled and frozen. The comparison of the quality averages of chilled and frozen milk was performed by Tukey test, with a probability of 5.0 %. Santa Inês sheep colostrum showed high protein and fat content, demonstrating a high source of nutrients for lamb nutrition. Santa Inês sheep’s milk can be stored for up to 240 hours without changes in chemical quality. Frozen milk from Santa Inês ewes for up to 70 days minus fat content; however, this form of milk preservation is viable. Refrigeration and freezing are alternatives that add value to the milk of Santa Inês ewes, but studies with previous preservation methods are necessary for greater quality assurance.

Nutritional and safety evaluation of various liquid and powdered tea whiteners available in Pakistan

The present study conducted to assess nutritional, safety parameters (aflatoxin M1/AFM1 and heavy metals; copper, cadmium and zinc) and fatty-acid composition of tea-whiteners (TWs). Accordingly, TW’s samples composition (moisture, ash, protein, fat and nitrogen free extract) determined using AOAC methods, minerals including Na, K and Ca heavy metals including Cu, Cd and Zn determined via atomic absorption spectrophotometer. The AFM1 measured using thin layer chromatography (TLC) whereas, fatty acids and trans-fat contents were determined using gas chromatography. ANOVA and independent sample t test applied to assess the significant difference. Results indicated that protein and fat contents (%) of liquid TWs were 2.7-5.4 and 4.28-6.48, respectively. Powdered TWs protein and fat (%) were 13.4-17, and 23.06-29.03, respectively. AFM1 was not found in any TW. Cu/Cd and Zn levels (ppm) of liquid TWs were 0.296-2.075, ND-1.206 and 0.009-0.026 respectively. For powdered TWs the readings (ppm) were 0.515-0.632, 0.003-0.005 and 0.010-0.013 respectively. Trans-fats (%) in liquid TWs were 2.90-7.51 and in powdered TWs were 1.29-1.83. In nutshell, TWs had traces of trans fats ranged 1.29-7.51% whereas, liquid TWs contain more trans-fats than powdered TWs. Major fatty acids among liquid and powdered TWs were palmitic acid, heptadecanoic acid, stearic acid and oleic acid.

Apparent digestibility of dried azolla powder incorporated diets in rohu Labeo rohita (Hamilton, 1822)

Dry matter and nutrient digestibility of dried azolla powder incorporated in the traditional feed was evaluated in advanced fingerlings of Labeo rohita (Hamilton, 1822) reared in aerated indoor plastic tanks. The fish were fed nearly isocaloric diets formulated to contain azolla powder, replacing the main ingredients, groundnut cake and rice bran of the Control diet at 10, 20, 30 and 40% levels. Total dry matter digestibility and major nutrient digestibility were estimated using acid insoluble ash as the marker. Digestibility (%) of dry matter, protein, fat and nitrogen free extract (NFE) showed a declining trend with increased azolla incorporation. Only protein and fat digestibility of 20% azolla diet was comparable with that of the Control, with higher incorporation levels resulting in significant reduction in the digestibility values. Keywords: Alternate protein source, Feed ingredient, Fish feed, Rohu

Effect of pulsed electric fields on cricket (Acheta domesticus) flour: Extraction yield (protein, fat and chitin) and techno-functional properties

Edible insects are an important source of proteins, fat, and chitin, which need to be extracted to develop tailored products with a controlled composition. Pulsed electric fields (PEF) is a non-thermal technology that can enhance the extraction. This study explores the effect of PEF on the extraction of protein, fat and chitin from cricket flour, as well as the material's functional properties. House crickets (Acheta domesticus) were treated with PEF at several conditions (4.9–49.1 kJ/kg). PEF treatment with 4.90 kJ/kg increased the extraction yields of protein (>18%) and fat >40%), while the treatment at 24.53 kJ/kg increased the oil binding and emulsifying capacity and antioxidant activity of the cricket flour by 28.10, 64.88 and 58.20%, respectively. Water binding capacity and foaming capacity were not affected by the PEF treatment. These results outline PEF as a suitable pretreatment for the valorization of house cricket biomass with possible industrial application.

Research of ostrich fat properties when melting in electrochemically activated medium

In recent decades, there has been a growing scientific interest in various kinds of technologies using electro-activated solutions with high reactivity and representing a powerful toolkit for intensification of production processes. However, theoretical knowledge about the regularities of change in fat properties during melting in an electrolyte is rather fragmentary, scarce and often contradictory. The work is devoted to the study of the main factors influencing the change in physical and chemical properties and yield of fat in the process of melting using catholyte, to substantiate the feasibility of its use and develop an industrial line for obtaining fat. The object of studies was ostrich fat obtained by traditional method – by melting in water and by experimental technology – in catholyte as well as technological regimes of fat extraction. According to the data obtained, the fat melted at pH of catholyte 11, temperature 100 and 75 °С was characterized by low values of acid number – 0,45 mg KOH/g and 0,40 mg KOH/g, respectively. The opposite trend was observed with a successive decrease in the alkalinity of the ECA medium and an increase in the melting temperature of the fat, which led to an increase in the content of secondary oxidation products in the experimental samples. It was found that due to the high reactivity of the EСA medium, the temperature and pH of the catholyte increased, the intermolecular interaction within the fat phase decreased, which increased the mobility of lipid molecules relative to each other. The lowest values of fat viscosity (0,42 and 0,4 kPa?s) were recorded when treating fatty raw materials in catholyte with pH 10.5 and 11 and temperature 100 °С. It is shown that increasing the pH of the catholyte contributes to minimizing the values of peroxide number of ostrich fat, in contrast to the heating temperature. It is established that processing of raw materials in catholyte at 75 °C resulted in the yield of fat 88,4–90,1%, which is almost 1,4 times higher than when melted in water. In the wet method of mellowing in water, denaturation of protein structures and a higher degree of fat extraction can be achieved at a mellowing temperature above 75 °C, in contrast to the proposed method of processing raw materials.

The use of near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) to determine the energy value of individual feedstuffs and mixed diets for pigs

To have quick and accurate feed quality information of ingredients and diets is of outmost importance to ensure that optimal nutritional requirements are met without providing an overabundance of nutrients, which increases costs and environmental pollution in wastes. Calibration models were developed and validated from near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) scans of 762 feedstuffs that have measured chemical composition and were assessed in balance experiments with pigs for measurements of the digestibility of dry matter, organic matter, nutrients, energy (DDE), and metabolizable energy (ME). For model development, the samples were grouped into ‘like’ sample types consisting of cereals, supplemental ingredients and feed mixtures (diets) as well as one group (total) to determine if it was possible to have one model for individual feedstuffs and mixed diets. The total models for most chemical constituents, digestibility of nutrients, DDE, and ME had good fits between predicted and measured values with R2 in the order of 0.90–0.99 for most chemical constituents, 0.86 for the DDE, and 0.84 for ME. The accuracy of the total models (SEP) varied between 8.7 and 48.6 g/kg DM for the chemical constituents, between 2.2% and 12.6% for digestibility of different nutrients, and between 0.33 and 0.68 MJ/kg DM for gross energy and ME, respectively. A standard equation was used to estimate ME (eME) from digestible fat, crude protein, crude fiber, and nitrogen-free extract whereby the R2 of eME was improved from 0.89 when eME was calculated from table value components and table digestibility estimates to 0.94 when estimated from NIRS-estimated components and NIRS digestibility nutrient estimates or estimated directly from NIRS calibration. For comparison, eME calculated from measured components and measured digestibility was 0.98. Models developed on the total dataset, including individual ingredients and diets, performed well and offers a greater robustness by representing a larger range of samples; however, models developed on just the cereals had greater precision. Near-infrared spectroscopy has proven to be a useful tool to estimate biological values associated with pig feedstuffs such as the DDE and ME where NIRS estimates were more accurate than the currently used estimation methods and can be used to quickly and inexpensively assess pig feedstuffs in the future.