External Problems Research Articles

Maternal Trauma and Psychopathology Symptoms Affect Refugee Children's Mental Health But Not Their Emotion Processing.

Refugee children's development may be affected by their parents' war-related trauma exposure and psychopathology symptoms across a range of cognitive and affective domains, but the processes involved in this transmission are poorly understood. Here, we investigated the impact of refugee mothers' trauma exposure and mental health on their children's mental health and attention biases to emotional expressions. In our sample of 324 Syrian refugee mother-child dyads living in Jordan (children's Mage=6.32, SD = 1.18; 50% female), mothers reported on their symptoms of anxiety and depression, and on their children's internalising, externalising, and attention problems. A subset of mothers reported their trauma exposure (n = 133) and PTSD symptoms (n = 124). We examined emotion processing in the dyads using a standard dot-probe task measuring their attention allocation to facial expressions of anger and sadness. Maternal trauma and PTSD symptoms were linked to child internalising and attention problems, while maternal anxiety and depression symptoms were associated with child internalising, externalising, and attention problems. Mothers and children were hypervigilant towards expressions of anger, but surprisingly, mother and child biases were not correlated with each other. The attentional biases to emotional faces were also not linked to psychopathology risk in the dyads. Our findings highlight the importance of refugee mothers' trauma exposure and psychopathology on their children's wellbeing. The results also suggest a dissociation between the mechanisms underlying mental health and those involved in attention to emotional faces, and that intergenerational transmission of mental health problems might involve mechanisms other than attentional processes relating to emotional expressions.

Intraindividual variability in parental acceptance-rejection predicts externalizing and internalizing symptoms across childhood/adolescence in nine countries.

Parenting that is high in rejection and low in acceptance is associated with higher levels of internalizing (INT) and externalizing (EXT) problems in children and adolescents. These symptoms develop and can increase in severity to negatively impact adolescents' social, academic, and emotional functioning. However, there are two major gaps in the extant literature: (a) nearly all prior research has focused on between-person differences in acceptance/rejection at the expense of examining intraindividual variability (IIV) across time in acceptance/rejection; and (b) no prior studies examine IIV in acceptance/rejection in diverse international samples. The present study utilized six waves of data with 1,199 adolescents' families living in nine countries from the Parenting Across Cultures study to test the hypotheses that (1) higher amounts of youth IIV in mother acceptance/rejection predict higher internalizing and (2) externalizing symptoms, and (3) that higher youth IIV in father acceptance/rejection predict higher internalizing, and (4) externalizing symptoms. Meta-analytic techniques indicated a significant, positive effect of IIV in child-reported mother and father acceptance/rejection on adolescent externalizing symptoms, and a significant positive effect of IIV in father acceptance/rejection on internalizing symptoms. The weighted effect for mother acceptance/rejection on internalizing symptoms was not statistically significant. Additionally, there was significant heterogeneity in all meta-analytic estimates. More variability over time in experiences of parental acceptance/rejection predicts internalizing and externalizing symptoms as children transition into adolescence, and this effect is present across multiple diverse samples. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Finding the balance: The influence of movement behaviours on childhood behaviour problems

Background and aimsThe Canadian 24-h movement guidelines have led to an increased focus on movement behaviours (sleep, screen, sedentary, and physical activity) throughout the day. MethodsWe examined the cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between 24-h movement behaviours and parent-reported levels of internalizing, externalizing, and total behaviour problems in a subset of the CHILD birth cohort study at ages 3 (N Age 3 = 541, 48.1% girls) through 5 (N Age 5 = 575, 49.6% girls). Physical activity, sedentary time, and sleep were measured using an accelerometer worn on the non-dominant wrist for seven days following a 24-h protocol. Screen time was measured via parent-report and date-matched to daily accelerometer recordings. Compositional isotemporal substitution models predicted change in behaviour problems with reallocating time between movement behaviours. ResultsCross-sectional analysis indicated that screen time relative to other movement behaviours was associated with greater externalizing behaviours at age 3 and greater internalizing and total problem behaviours at ages 3 and 5. This was supported in the longitudinal analysis, where increased screen time at 3 was associated with increased internalizing, externalizing, and total problem behaviours at 5. Cross-sectional reallocation from screen to non-screen sedentary time was associated with reductions in internalizing and total behaviour problems at 3 and 5 years and reductions in externalizing at 3. Contrary to previous findings, cross-sectional proportional increases in moderate-to-vigorous-intensity physical activity were associated with increased externalizing and total problem behaviours at 5. ConclusionsClinicians should prioritize supporting families to find a balanced approach rather than promoting specific movement behaviours.

The Busan International Film Festival

Jason Bechervaise examines the latest edition of the Busan International Film Festival (BIFF) in the context of the external and internal problems that have plagued the festival over the past ten years, with a leadership crisis this spring once again putting the festival in the spotlight for the wrong reasons. This report explores BIFF’s curation of Korean cinema, with an emphasis on the festival’s importance as launch pad for young Korean filmmakers as well as how the festival’s programming, which now includes productions financed by streaming platforms, reflects the rapidly changing Korean film and media ecosystem.

Cultural values, parenting and child adjustment in Colombia.

This study examined associations of mothers' and fathers' individualism, collectivism and conformity values with parenting (warmth, rules/limit-setting, knowledge solicitation and expectations regarding children's family obligations) and child internalising and externalising behaviours in Colombia. Mothers, fathers and children (N = 100) from Medellín, Colombia were interviewed when children were, on average, 10 years old. Higher maternal collectivism and conformity values were associated with higher maternal warmth and fewer child externalising problems, whereas higher paternal collectivism was associated with lower maternal warmth and more child externalising problems. Fathers' cultural values also were related to their expectations regarding children's family obligations. The findings suggest differences in how mothers' and fathers' cultural values are related to parenting and child adjustment in Colombia, as well as the need to examine cultural values beyond individualism, collectivism and conformity values.

Тургут Озал и некоторые аспекты внешней политики Турции в 1980–1990-х гг.

The article examines some aspects of Turkey’s foreign policy in the 1980–1990s, during the time when Turgut Ozal was in power. The study of this issue in the context of political biography of a particular figure is condi-tioned by the fact that in Turkish practical politics the personal factor is of key importance. The problem is stud-ied on the basis of media sources and academic works. The two most important areas of Turkey’s foreign activ-ity are considered – integration with Western Europe, Armenian and Kurdish issues. These external problems are the most significant for Turkey’s internal development. T. Ozal come to be seen in the history of Turkish politics as a figure who was the first to outline its main strategic directions for the following decades, which are relevant up to the present moment.

Sex-specific associations between placental corticotropin releasing hormone and problem behaviors in childhood

Placental corticotropin-releasing hormone (pCRH) is a neuroactive peptide produced in high concentrations in mid-late pregnancy, during key periods of fetal brain development. Some evidence suggests that higher pCRH exposure during gestation is associated with adverse neurodevelopment, particularly in female offspring. In 858 mother-child dyads from the sociodemographically diverse CANDLE cohort (Memphis, TN), we examined: (1) the slope of pCRH rise in mid-late pregnancy and (2) estimated pCRH at delivery as a measure of cumulative prenatal exposure. When children were 4 years-old, mothers reported on problem behaviors using the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) and cognitive performance was assessed by trained psychologists using the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales. We fitted linear regression models examining pCRH in relation to behavioral and cognitive performance measures, adjusting for covariates. Using interaction models, we evaluated whether associations differed by fetal sex, breastfeeding, and postnatal neighborhood opportunity. In the full cohort, log-transformed pCRH measures were not associated with outcomes; however, we observed sex differences in some models (interaction p-values≤0.01). In male offspring, an interquartile (IQR) increase in pCRH slope (but not estimated pCRH at delivery), was positively associated with raw Total (β=3.06, 95%CI: 0.40, 5.72), Internalizing (β=0.89, 95%CI: 0.03, 1.76), and Externalizing (β=1.25, 95%CI: 0.27, 2.22) Problem scores, whereas, in females, all associations were negative (Total Problems: β=−1.99, 95%CI: −3.89, −0.09; Internalizing: β=−0.82, 95%CI: −1.42, −0.23; Externalizing: β=−0.56, 95%CI: −1.34, 0.22). No associations with cognitive performance were observed nor did we observe moderation by breastfeeding or postnatal neighborhood opportunity. Our results provide further evidence that prenatal pCRH exposure may impact subsequent child behavior in sex-specific ways, however in contrast to prior studies suggesting adverse impacts in females, steeper mid-gestation pCRH rise was associated with more problem behaviors in males, but fewer in females.

Are prosocial tendencies relevant for developmental psychopathology? The relations of prosocial behavior and empathy-related responding to externalizing problems, internalizing problems, and autism spectrum disorder.

The field of developmental psychopathology tends to focus on the negative aspects of functioning. However, prosocial behavior and empathy-related responding - positive aspects of functioning- might relate to some aspects of psychopathology in meaningful ways. In this article, we review research on the relations of three types of developmental psychopathology- externalizing problems (EPs), internalizing problems (IPs), and Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) - to empathy-related responding (e.g., affective and cognitive empathy, sympathy, personal distress) and prosocial behavior. Empathy-related responding and prosocial behavior generally have been inversely related to EPs, although findings are sometimes reversed for young children and, for empathy, weak for reactive aggression. Some research indicates that children's empathy (often measured as emotional contagion) and personal distress are positively related to IPs, suggesting that strong sensitivity to others' emotions is harmful to some children. In contrast, prosocial behaviors are more consistently negatively related to IPs, although findings likely vary depending on the motivation for prosocial behavior and the recipient. Children with ASD are capable of prosocially and empathy-related responding, although parents report somewhat lower levels of these characteristics for ASD children compared to neurotypical peers. Issues in regard to measurement, motivation for prosociality, causal relations, and moderating and mediating factors are discussed.

UPAYA PENINGKATAN KOMPETENSI PROFESIONAL GURU BAHASA ARAB

The difficulties faced by educators in their capacity as professionals are constantly developing and changing. As a result of growing their ability to compete globally, instructors face both internal and external problems. Both community-based and government-owned educational institutions expect a constant need for qualified teachers. The researcher hopes to shed light on the significance of comprehending the notion of teacher competence, the significance of teachers' endeavors to enhance their own competence, and the significance of the Quran and Islam's view of competence. The Quran is filled with many wise and inspirational stories, one of which being the one about the Prophet Yusuf who was asked to resolve the nation's financial issues. He made it clear that he had the ability to maintain and manage finances. Teachers also need to have the guts to say that they are the individuals who are best suited to preserve and advance knowledge, as well as the servants of the people and the state. Teachers must keep working to improve their expertise through participation in a variety of forums and activities, as well as networking with other professionals' groups.

Dialektika Hegel Kekhalifahan Umayyah Sebagai Pencegah Radikalisasi

The background to this research is the discourse on Islamic history which is often monopolized to produce a single narrative regarding the history of a great and majestic Islamic civilization unlike today. This is often used as an argument for why we have to return to the time of the prophet and the caliphate, which led to radicalization, especially of young people, to restore the caliphate in Indonesia. Why are young people easily radicalized? What historical scholarship can be used to counter it? and What is the history of Islamic civilization that was not radicalized? The answer to this question is about the internal and external problems faced by today's young people, especially students. The way to overcome this is through critical and creative thinking as in the 2023 Merdeka Curriculum. This research aims to provide history teachers with a role in preventing radicalization through historical scholarship, namely the Hegel Dialectic, especially the history of Islamic civilization. This article uses qualitative research with the literature study method. This research analyzes the reasons why young people who are often targets of radicalization by terrorist groups become their members by comparing the present with the "past glories" of Islamic civilization. Hegel's dialectic is a way to discuss complex topics by showing two different points of view of Thesis and Antithesis so as to achieve a broader understanding of Synthesis. This technique can prevent students from becoming radicalized because they don't immediately believe something before checking it themselves. Hegel's dialect is a means of contracting radicalism discourse using historical science as its basis.

“Why are These Problems Still Unresolved?” Those Pending Problems, and Neglected Contradictions in Online Classroom in the Post-COVID-19 Era

Abstract To investigate the pending problem and improve the effectiveness of online classrooms in the post-COVID-19 era, researchers conducted semi-structured interviews with 41 teachers from China, the Philippines, and other countries who have experienced long-time online classrooms. The research indicated that (1) all problems the teachers face in the online classroom can be classified into two types, including internal problems (the problems in teachers’ teaching, students’ learning, classroom discipline, and students’ psychology) and external problems (the problems in hardware and equipment, school management, education equity and privacy protection, and family interference). (2) To better improve online classroom effectiveness, teachers strongly call for a series of reforms, including the reform of school management, curriculum and teaching, after-class instruction, and psychological support, which require schools, teachers, and parents to work together to make fundamental improvements. (3) Educational equity issues caused by economic development level, long-term inefficient online interaction, and various internal contradictions are the fundamental reasons why the previous problems existing in the online classroom have not been solved. Teachers, schools, educational researchers, and government departments need to deeply study and analyze these reasons, which will help solve a series of past and present problems in the online classroom.

Strategi Pengembangan Teknologi Pertanian Padi Sawah di Langkat Sumatera Utara

Langkat Regency is one of the five largest rice fields in North Sumatra. This is an excellent opportunity to become a rice barn in North Sumatra. So, agricultural technology is needed to support increasing rice productivity. The research aims to form a strategy for developing agricultural technology in Langkat. The development strategy produces SO (strengths-opportunities) strategies, WO (weaknesses-opportunities) strategies, ST (strengths-challenges) strategies, and WT (weaknesses-threats) strategies (North Sumatra. This research was conducted in 2023 with one respondent as a Langkat Regency Agriculture Service field instructor. This resource person was chosen because he was considered capable of describing internal and external problems in lowland rice farming in Langkat. This research used the SWOT tool to identify the IFAS and EFAS factors of lowland rice farming. The study results are accelerating agricultural technology to increase productivity, monitoring the performance of extension workers in reducing pest attacks, and increasing productivity, training, and providing insurance for farmers. The agricultural service collaborates with BMKG for information on extreme weather.

Implementation of the Independent Curriculum in Islamic Religion Subjects

This research aims to explain how the Merdeka Curriculum is implemented in Islamic Religious Education subjects at Harapan Mandiri Middle School in Medan. The research method is qualitative using a critical discourse analysis approach, namely observing facts that actually occurred and comparing them with related documents and testing the level of achievement. The research results obtained are, firstly, the Merdeka curriculum at Harapan Mandiri Middle School in Medan includes three activities, namely diagnostic assessment, P5 (Pancasila Student Profile Strengthening Project), and PMO (Project Management Office). Both PAI teaching processes with the Independent Curriculum at Harapan Mandiri Middle School in Medan have fully adopted the Independent Curriculum approach in planning, implementation and assessment. The three student learning outcomes when the Merdeka Curriculum was applied to Islamic Religion subjects at Harapan Mandiri Middle School in Medan showed a significant increase in the cognitive and psychomotor aspects, but the affective aspect experienced a less significant increase. The four obstacles in implementing the Merdeka Curriculum in Islamic Religion subjects at Harapan Mandiri Middle School in Medan involve senior teachers who are less familiar with technology as an internal problem, and parents who do not understand the Merdeka Curriculum as an external problem. The recommended solution to overcome obstacles in implementing the Merdeka Curriculum at Harapan Mandiri Middle School in Medan is that teachers must improve their pedagogical competence by reading educational books, writing scientific papers, following the latest news, and taking part in training. Parents of students who do not understand the Merdeka Curriculum are advised to can communicate effectively and provide regular explanations regarding the independent curriculum.

Enhancing Arabic Speaking Skills: A Societal Approach at an Indonesian Islamic Boarding School University - Implementation Challenges and Remedies

The research explores the implementation of teaching speaking skills to first-semester Arabic language students at the University of Islamic Boarding School in Indonesia, using a social approach. It aims to comprehensively describe the process, covering objectives, the roles of lecturers and students, discussion themes, teaching methods, media, and evaluation. The study employs a descriptive qualitative method with data collected through observation, interviews, and documentation. Insights from the findings highlight the sociological perspective of learning objectives, emphasizing the lecturer's role in fostering social interactions through discussions. Both the lecturer and students' roles are examined in a societal context, underlining the lecturer's societal responsibilities and students' readiness for societal engagement. Discussion themes include social elements such as good behavior, Islamic education, and youth. The teaching method involves a conversational approach with cooperative learning strategies. Classroom media is limited to books and boards, while dormitories are equipped with LED TVs broadcasting Arabic-language religious speeches. Challenges faced by students are categorized into internal (lack of personal motivation) and external problems (shortage of classrooms and inadequate bathroom facilities). The study provides insights into the practical and sociological aspects of teaching speaking skills in an Islamic educational environment.

The Relationship Between Harsh Parenting and Smartphone Addiction Among Adolescents: Serial Mediating Role of Depression and Social Pain.

With the increasing prevalence of smart phones, adolescent smartphone addiction has garnered significant attention from researchers. Previous studies have revealed that smartphone addiction is associated with various internalization and externalization problems. Therefore, this present study aims to investigate the risk factors contributing to adolescent smartphone addiction. Study 1 recruited a sample of 540, 690, and 470 Chinese students aged between 10-17 years for exploratory factor analysis, confirmatory factor analysis, and predictive validity analysis of the social pain scale. Study 2 utilized data from a sample of 718 Chinese students aged between 10-17 years to examine the measurement model used revised social pain scale, smartphone addiction scale, harsh parenting scale, and depression sub-scale. The present study revealed that (1)The Social Pain Scale had good applicability in Chinese adolescents; (2) There were significant, positive correlations among harsh parenting, smartphone addiction, depression and social pain; (3) Social pain and depression played a partially serial mediating role in the relationship between harsh parenting and smartphone addiction, and similarly the relationship between paternal harsh parenting and smartphone addiction, while a completely serial mediating role in the relationship between maternal harsh parenting and smartphone addiction. This study provides a direct path (improving parenting style) and an indirect path (reducing social pain to reduce depression) regarding interventions for adolescents with smartphone addiction, and establishes a basis for improving the situation of adolescent smartphone addiction.

The role of investment in the development of industrial enterprises

Economic regulation of the processes of modernization of industrial production is a fundamental principle of industrial policy. It is noted that investments act as a mechanism that can launch the development of industrial enterprises and allow them to enter a trajectory of accelerated development. Particular attention is focused on current internal and external problems of industrial enterprises and ways to solve them. As an example of the development and implementation of an innovative development strategy under conditions of severe external restrictions, the activities of the limited liability company “Engineering Center for Fire Robotics “EFER” of the Republic of Karelia” are considered. Currently, the EFER Engineering Center occupies a leading position in the development and production of robotic fire extinguishing installations and fire robots in Russia, which could not be achieved without the development of the production base and without maintaining annual R&D costs in the amount of 5÷8% of the cost of production. Using the example of the EFER Engineering Center, the possibility of innovative development of an enterprise is demonstrated, subject to government support and investment. Conclusions are drawn about the need to attract additional finance, which will allow industrial enterprises to enter the trajectory of accelerated development. It is indicated that in order to create a favorable investment climate, an investment strategy is needed that determines the investment priorities of the region. The dynamics of attracted investments depend on the economic climate and investment attractiveness of the regions. The region’s investment strategy should provide for the development of a comprehensive plan that ensures the achievement of the strategic vision and development goals of the region, taking into account the stimulation of innovative industrial growth and the creation of new opportunities for investors. A favorable investment climate will create objective prerequisites for the development of competitive industrial enterprises capable of ensuring the technological sovereignty of the Russian Federation.

Pengaruh Program Neuro Rehabilitasi Terhadap Peningkatan Status Keseimbangan Dinamis Pada Kelompok Lansia

Old age is a cycle of maturation which is described by changes in abilities, both physical, mental, profound, psychosocial and sexual abilities. One of the developments experienced by older people is dynamic balance problems caused by external muscle problems, such as reduced muscle strength, adaptability and joint range of motion. Strengthening the muscles at the lowermost point through preparatory exercises can strengthen neuromuscular variations so that an increased level of dynamic balance is achieved. This study aims to determine the impact of providing a nerve restoration program (Static Bike and Exercise Therapy training program) on improving body balance status in the elderly group. Pre-test research strategy with a one collection pretest-posttest plan. The research used a purposive sampling test where the subjects were a group of elderly people in Gaden Village who did not experience mental disorders, were not undergoing special treatment and were given a Static Bike and Exercise Therapy training program 3 times a week for a period of 3 months. Estimation and evaluation of dynamic balance levels using the Time Up and Go Test (TUGT). The exploration results using the Shapiro Wilk normality test obtained a normal distribution of information, then a speculation test was carried out using the matched T test with the condition that a critical value was obtained if p<0.001 (p<0.05) at the strong balance level. This will show the impact of providing Static Bike and Exercise Therapy training programs on fair dynamic balance in the elderly.

An adaptive sampling algorithm for reduced‐order models using Isomap

AbstractThe use of reduced‐order models (ROMs) in physics‐based modeling and simulation is a popular tool for drastically lowering the computational cost associated with high‐fidelity simulations. ROMs use training data from a set of computed high‐fidelity simulations with different design parameters that control physical and geometric properties of the full‐order model. The quality of the training data dictates the performance of the ROM, making the choice of training design parameters important. A widely used method for generating training parameters for ROMs is Latin hypercube sampling (LHS), a statistical method that aims to maximize the distance and minimize the correlation amongst produced samples. However, LHS fails to account for the physics of the full‐order model and can lead to an over‐representation of some physical regimes in the training data while neglecting others. In this work, we present a computationally efficient adaptive sampling method for ROMs using Isomap, a versatile algorithm for nonlinear dimensionality reduction. Using an initial number of samples, the adaptive sampling algorithm iteratively generates samples based on a low‐dimensional manifold of the training data. When applied to two external aerodynamics problems, the proposed adaptive sampling algorithm offers significantly improved performance in predicting physical fields and coefficients of lift and drag for a given computational budget for both non‐intrusive and projection‐based ROMs.

Analisis strategi pemasaran untuk meningkatkan daya saing UMKM ladu arai pinang ikhlas di gasan gadang

The Marketing strategies is one of way to win a sustainable competitive advantageboth for companies that produces goods or services. The Marketing startegies can use as a basic in order to preparing of the companies planning. One of the problems that still often occurs today is UMKM competition which is getting tougher because UMKM are an indicator of the success of a nation’s development. This is indicated by the many findings of problems that occur in UMKM at this time. In the case, the government’s role is expected to create UMKM that have quality and creativity to be able to compate with other UMKM. This study aims to: (1) Increase sales of ladu arai pinang nut in Gasan Gadang: (2) To find out how to improve the competitiveness of UMKM in Ladu Arai Pinang in Gasan Gadang. This study uses qualitative research, data collection techniques are carried out through observation, interviews and documentation. Consists of primary data and secondary data. The results of the study show that the results of this study indicate that UMKM in the Gasan Gadang area, Padang Pariaman Regency, still have many internal or external problems. The problem that often occurs is the lack of costs for business capital and the distribution of goods that are not appropriate are not in accordance with the target. Many UMKM actors are walking in the place in developing their business because they lack innovation, such as innovation in taste and packiaging, umkm actors must be literate with technology. This Is one of the keys to the success of business. Before starting a bisiness, one must have a clear vision and mission so that a business can be directed according to the target to be achieved. The role of the government is also very important because UMKM are one of the indicators of the success of a nation.

Joint developmental trajectories of internalizing and externalizing problems from mid-childhood to late adolescence and childhood risk factors: Findings from a prospective pre-birth cohort.

There is limited evidence on heterogenous co-developmental trajectories of internalizing (INT) and externalizing (EXT) problems from childhood to adolescence and predictors of these joint trajectories. We utilized longitudinal data from Raine Study participants (n = 2393) to identify these joint trajectories from 5 to 17 years using parallel-process latent class growth analysis and analyze childhood individual and family risk factors predicting these joint trajectories using multinomial logistic regression. Five trajectory classes were identified: Low-problems (Low-INT/Low-EXT, 29%), Moderate Externalizing (Moderate-EXT/Low-INT, 26.5%), Primary Internalizing (Moderate High-INT/Low-EXT, 17.5%), Co-occurring (High-INT/High-EXT, 17%), High Co-occurring (Very High-EXT/High-INT, 10%). Children classified in Co-occurring and High Co-occurring trajectories (27% of the sample) exhibited clinically meaningful co-occurring problem behaviors and experienced more adverse childhood risk-factors than other three trajectories. Compared with Low-problems: parental marital problems, low family income, and absent father predicted Co-occurring and High Co-occurring trajectories; maternal mental health problems commonly predicted Primary Internalizing, Co-occurring, and High Co-occurring trajectories; male sex and parental tobacco-smoking uniquely predicted High Co-occurring membership; other substance smoking uniquely predicted Co-occurring membership; speech difficulty uniquely predicted Primary Internalizing membership; child's temper-tantrums predicted all four trajectories, with increased odds ratios for High Co-occurring (OR = 8.95) and Co-occurring (OR = 6.07). Finding two co-occurring trajectories emphasizes the importance of early childhood interventions addressing comorbidity.