External Foci Research Articles

Focus of attention effects on lower extremity biomechanics during vertical jump landings

This study examined biomechanical differences between external and internal foci of attention during vertical jump landings in males and females. Twenty-four healthy adults performed eight vertical jump landings using both internal and external foci while three-dimensional kinematic and ground reaction force (GRF) data were obtained. Two (focus) by two (sex) analyses of variance (α = 0.05) and Cohen's d effect sizes (ES) were used to compare differences in vertical GRF, joint angular positions and displacements, and lower limb joint angular work between foci and between sexes. Significantly greater knee contributions to total angular work occurred during external versus internal focus landings regardless of sex (p = .013; ES = 0.30). Significantly smaller plantarflexion angles (p = .019; ES = 0.53) and significantly greater knee flexion angles were observed at ground contact (p < .001; ES = 1.11) in males during external focus landings. Females exhibited significantly smaller knee flexion angles at both ground contact during external versus internal focus landings (p = .031; ES = 0.20) and compared to males during external focus landings (p < .001; ES = 1.76). Both peak vertical GRF (p = .003; ES = 1.54) and the ankle contributions to total angular work during loading (p = .026; ES = 1.07) were greater in females versus males regardless of foci, whereas the knee contributions to total angular work during loading were smaller in women (p = .026; ES = 1.07). Males and females might consider adopting an external focus during vertical jump landings to increase knee joint contributions to lower limb energy absorption. Females, in particular, might consider external focus use to decrease peak vertical GRF and increase the knee joint's contribution to total energy absorption to magnitudes similar to those exhibited by males.

Combining Attentional Focus Strategies: Effects and Adherence

This study explored the influence of instructions that combine internal and external foci. Fifty-one subjects were randomly divided into 3 groups: internal only, external only, and a combined internal and external focus. The task was the overhand lacrosse throw for accuracy from a stationary position to a target located on a wall 6 m away. Following a 10-trial pretest, instructions were provided according to attentional focus group assignment and participants performed 8 blocks of 10 practice throws. Following a 2-day period of no practice, retention and transfer tests were performed. A significant Group × Block interaction was found, F (14, 336) = .57, indicating that the external focus group was more accurate than the combined focus group on the first and second practice blocks. This external focus benefit diminished in later trials and no significant differences for group were found for retention or transfer. Participants performed significantly better on the retention test than on the pretest. Subjects were also asked to estimate what percentage of the practice trials they actually focused on the instructions provided. Responses ranged from 10% to 95% (M = 64%), raising questions regarding how learners use instructional information.Subscribe to TPE

Kinematic Effects of Varying Adolescents' Attentional Instructions for Standing Long Jump.

Studies examining attentional focus in the motor performance of children and young adolescents have produced mixed results. We studied 26 seventh-grade physical education student volunteers ( Mage = 12.7 years; SD = 0.56) who performed two standing long jumps for maximum displacement in four counterbalanced instructional conditions: (a) no cues provided, (b) focus on rapid knee extension, (c) focus on rapid forward arm swing, and (d) focus to jump as close as possible to a cone placed at 3 meters. The last condition, encouraging an external focus, led to significantly greater jumping distances and significantly lower projection angles (36.9°) when compared with internal attentional foci on the actions of the legs (40.2°) and arms (38.6°). Compared with the leg focus, the arm focus lead to significantly greater jumping distances but no differences for projection angle. While these results are consistent with those of past adult participants, when comparing external and internal attentional foci, this study extended these findings to adolescents and revealed differences in projection angle, indicating that cueing young adolescents to focus on arm action did not appear to constrain movement in the same manner as it has in adults.

Changing one’s focus of attention alters the structure of movement variability

Substantial evidence supports the beneficial effect of an external (vs. internal) focus of attention on task performance during goal-directed movements. Counter-intuitively, an external focus has also been shown to increase joint-level movement variability. ObjectiveTo determine whether shifting attentional focus can alter the structure of movement variability, thereby offering a probable mechanistic explanation for how adopting an external focus of attention might confer its benefits. MethodsThirty-five healthy adults (age 23–55) performed unipedal hopping under three different attentional foci: natural (no directed focus), internal focus, and external focus. Uncontrolled manifold analysis was used to examine the structure of movement variability with respect to stabilization of leg orientation and vertical leg length during hopping. Takeoff/landing event bin and stance phase integrals of performance-irrelevant and performance-destabilizing variability were compared across focus conditions. ResultsAccuracy of hopping in place improved with both external and internal foci compared to the natural condition (.004 ≤ p ≤ .035). External focus, to a greater degree than internal focus, destabilized leg orientation at takeoff and landing compared to the natural condition (.001 ≤ p ≤ .038). External focus increased – but internal focus decreased – leg length stabilization throughout stance compared to the natural condition (p < .001). ConclusionExternal focus was superior to internal and natural focus conditions in terms of increasing flexibility within the system to orient the leg differently at takeoff and landing to compensate for unintentional drift during hopping. An external focus increased leg length stabilization in stance by preferentially increasing the subset of variability that explores multiple successful performance options. These results provide an understanding of the mechanism underlying external focus benefits – improving movement variability/coordination.

The Use of Augmented Information for Reducing Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury Risk During Jump Landings: A Systematic Review.

A comprehensive systematic review of the literature on the use of augmented information in anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury-prevention programs to improve jump-landing technique was conducted. The use of motor-learning concepts could provide more robust means of preventing ACL injuries. To systematically summarize the effectiveness of augmented information in improving the biomechanical factors associated with an increased risk for ACL injury. Articles were retrieved using the electronic databases of PubMed, MEDLINE, CINAHL, and Google Scholar and 3 lines of truncated search words: (a) lower extremity, knee, ACL, and anterior cruciate ligament; (b) prevention, injury prevention, and prehab; and (c) augmented information, augmented feedback, feedback, cue, and instruction. We also performed a hand search of the reference lists of the screened articles. We independently assessed the methodologic quality using the Cochrane Group on Screening and Diagnostic Test Methods list. Articles were placed in 1 of 3 augmented-information categories: prescriptive, feedback, or transition. Articles were also categorized based on whether the information likely encouraged an internal or external focus of attention. The searches identified a total of 353 studies, of which 18 were included. Most researchers found that augmented information could lead to technique changes to reduce the biomechanical risk factors associated with ACL injury. The average methodologic quality of the studies was 11.8 out of 17, with a range from 8 to 15. The authors of only 7 studies examined retention of the improved techniques. The evidence suggests that augmented information can be used to significantly improve the biomechanical indicators associated with ACL injury and to enhance current ACL injury-prevention programs. Combined prescriptive and feedback information that encouraged both internal and external foci led to the largest retention effect sizes.

Learning Effect of Anchoring Bias in Combination with Action-Perception Coupling in Novice Golf Putting

Quality of instruction significantly influences skill acquisition and performance in sport related tasks, such as golf putting. Instruction for novice individuals should promote external focus, and constantly emphasize the relationship between motor action and task outcome. PURPOSE: To analyze the influence of an anchoring bias, while also examining the learning benefits of integrating action-perception external foci. METHODS: The putting protocol consisted of three trials: pre-test, acquisition, and post-test. Each trial was performed from a distance of eight feet on artificial turf. Subjects (6 males, 6 females) did not receive instructions or cues for any of the ten putts during the pre- or post-tests. Two counter balanced groups were made upon the completion of the pre-test. Immediately before the start of the acquisition trial subjects were provided an anchor number and asked to estimate whether their average putt would stop closer or further than the number. Group one (High) was given an anchor of 12 inches and group two (Low) was given an anchor of 3 inches. External cues were positioned in front of and behind the starting point of the ball to facilitate club and ball path for the acquisition trials. The subjects were not made aware of the cues or instructed to use them in any way. The acquisition trial contained five blocks of twenty putts with a three-minute break between each block. Twenty-four hours after the completion of the acquisition trial subjects returned to complete the post-test. Distance from the target was measured as the average sum of horizontal and vertical distance. RESULTS: The high anchor group responded with an average of 5.55 inches (9.3±1.96 vs 3.75±1.78, p<0.05) more than the low anchor group. This difference was found to be significant, demonstrating that anchor values may have an influence on estimation. Error was reduced in both the High (50.1±18.07 to 40.84±9.71, p<0.05) and Low (58.72± 18.59 to 35.71±7.99, p<0.05) groups from pre-test to post-test. Differences between groups were not found to be statistically significant (p = 0.262). CONCLUSION: Individuals used the provided anchor values to adjust their estimate of predicted performance. Significant differences in putt performance from pre to post test showed improvement in both groups. Improvement between groups were not significant.

The Reflective Mind: Examining Individual Differences in Susceptibility to Base Rate Neglect with fMRI.

Performance on heuristics and bias tasks has been shown to be susceptible to bias. In turn, susceptibility to bias varies as a function of individual differences in cognitive abilities (e.g., intelligence) and thinking styles (e.g., propensity for reflection). Using a classic task (i.e., lawyer-engineer problem), we conducted two experiments to examine the differential contributions of cognitive abilities versus thinking styles to performance. The results of Experiment 1 demonstrated that the Cognitive Reflection Test (CRT)-a well-established measure of reflective thinking-predicted performance on conflict problems (where base rates and intuition point in opposite directions), whereas STM predicted performance on nonconflict problems. Experiment 2 conducted in the fMRI scanner replicated this behavioral dissociation and enabled us to probe their neural correlates. As predicted, conflict problems were associated with greater activation in the ACC-a key region for conflict detection-even in cases when participants responded stereotypically. In participants with higher CRT scores, conflict problems were associated with greater activation in the posterior cingulate cortex (PCC), and activation in PCC covaried in relation to CRT scores during conflict problems. Also, CRT scores predicted activation in PCC in conflict problems (over and above nonconflict problems). Our results suggest that individual differences in reflective thinking as measured by CRT are related to brain activation in PCC-a region involved in regulating attention between external and internal foci. We discuss the implications of our findings in terms of PCC's possible involvement in switching from intuitive to analytic mode of thought.

House Reinfestation With Triatoma infestans (Hemiptera: Reduviidae) After Community-Wide Spraying With Insecticides in the Argentine Chaco: A Multifactorial Process.

We investigated the dynamics and underlying causes of house (re)infestation with Triatoma infestans (Klug 1834) after a community-wide residual spraying with pyrethroids in a well-defined rural section of Pampa del Indio municipality (northeastern Argentina) over a 4-yr period. House infestation was assessed by timed manual searches, during insecticide applications, and by opportunistic householders' bug collections. All reinfested houses were selectively re-sprayed with insecticides. The resident population comprised Qom (66.6%) and Creole (33.4%) households, whose sociodemographic profiles differed substantially. The prevalence of house infestation dropped, less than expected, from 20.5% at baseline to 5.0% at 14 months postspraying (MPS), and then fluctuated between 0.8 and 4.2% over 21-51 MPS. Postspraying house infestation was positively and highly significantly associated with prespraying infestation. Most of the foci detected over 14-21 MPS were considered persistent (residual), some of which were moderately resistant to pyrethroids and were suppressed with malathion. Infestation patterns over 27-51 MPS suggested bug invasion from internal or external foci, but the sources of most findings were unaccounted for. Local spatial analysis identified two hotspots of postspraying house infestation. Using multimodel inference with model averaging, we corroborated that baseline domestic infestation was closely related to refuge availability, housing quality, and occurrence of peridomestic infestation. The diminished effectiveness of single pyrethroid treatments, partly attributable to moderate resistance compounded with rather insensitive vector detection methods and poor housing conditions, contributed to vector persistence. Improved control strategies combined with broad social participation are needed for the sustainable elimination of vector-borne human Chagas disease from the Gran Chaco.

Multiple foci of commitment in a professional service firm: balancing complex employment relations

Employees of professional service firms (PSFs) have attachments to multiple groups, which may be either compatible or conflicting: their employer, their clients and their profession. We analyse the antecedents of commitment to these three foci based on a survey of 510 employees in a large PSF in Norway. The main findings are as follows: (1) low quality of internal work relations is negatively associated with employer commitment and draws employees towards external foci of commitment – the clients and the profession; (2) role conflict is associated with stronger commitment to the client organisation and the profession; and (3) autonomy and transferability of skills are associated with stronger commitment to the profession, but does not undermine commitment to the employer. The article contributes to our understanding of the conditions under which employees identify with external groups and when commitment to the employer may be compromised. The findings have implications for how managers can help to increase the commitment of employees involved in complex employment relations.

Attentional Focus in Classical Ballet: A Survey Of Professional Dancers.

Focus of attention and its effects on skilled motor performance has become an important line of research in the motor learning domain. Numerous studies have demonstrated that an external focus of attention (i.e., on the movement effect) enhances motor performance and learning relative to an internal focus (i.e., on body movements). Thus, small differences in the wording of instructions or feedback given by teachers can have a significant impact on the effectiveness and efficiency of motor skill performance. In this paper, we review some of the attentional focus studies that are relevant to ballet performance. In addition, we report the findings of a survey among professional ballet dancers (N = 53) that we conducted to determine their typical attentional focus while performing certain movements. The results showed that the majority adopted internal foci, or combinations of internal and external foci, most of the time. This suggests that there is room for improvement for performance and teaching. We provide examples of how external foci can be promoted in ballet practice.

Quantifying external focus of attention in sailing by means of action sport cameras

ABSTRACTThe aim of the current study was twofold: (1) to validate the use of action sport cameras for quantifying focus of visual attention in sailing and (2) to apply this method to examine whether an external focus of attention is associated with better performance in upwind sailing. To test the validity of this novel quantification method, we first calculated the agreement between gaze location measures and head orientation measures in 13 sailors sailing upwind during training regattas using a head mounted eye tracker. The results confirmed that for measuring visual focus of attention in upwind sailing, the agreement for the two measures was high (intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) = 0.97) and the 95% limits of agreement were acceptable (between −8.0% and 14.6%). In a next step, we quantified the focus of visual attention in sailing upwind as fast as possible by means of an action sport camera. We captured sailing performance, operationalised as boat speed in the direction of the wind, and environmental conditions using a GPS, compass and wind meter. Four trials, each lasting 1 min, were analysed for 15 sailors each, resulting in a total of 30 upwind speed trials on port tack and 30 upwind speed trials on starboard tack. The results revealed that in sailing – within constantly changing environments – the focus of attention is not a significant predictor for better upwind sailing performances. This implicates that neither external nor internal foci of attention was per se correlated with better performances. Rather, relatively large interindividual differences seem to indicate that different visual attention strategies can lead to similar performance outcomes.

EEG-biofeedback Intervention Improves balance in Stroke Survivor

Postural instability while performing daily activity is main problem to individuals with stroke. Increased postural sway is related to postural instability resulting in falls. Internal and external foci of attention were used to decline postural sway of individuals with neurological deficits. Electroencephalogram (EEG) biofeedback may be efficiency device for clinical training which external focus of attention. The purpose of this study is to explore whether external (EEG biofeedback) and internal foci of attention with unstable surface would affect postural sway in chronic stroke. Twenty-one hospitalized people with stroke were participated. Postural sway was measured at three conditions randomly while participants stood on the force platform with unstable surface. The conditions were control (quiet stand), internal focus of attention (focus on the own body), and external focus of attention (focus on the outside of body by EEG biofeedback). The external focus of attention resulted in less postural sway relative to both the internal focusof attention and control conditions. There was no significant difference between the external and internal foci of attention on anteroposterior sway velocity. In conclusions, the results are suggested that external focus of attention better to postural control than internal focus of attention or control condition during standing for individuals with stroke. The outcomes have possibly important for intervention by clinicians and the reduction of postural instability in stroke patients.

On the importance of critical thinking: A response to Wulf's (2015) commentary

In a recent paper (Toner & Moran, 2015), we argued that continued improvement among elite athletes requires alternation between external and internal foci of attention. In her commentary on this paper, Wulf (2015) claims that we have misunderstood the ‘attentional focus’ effect. Our rejoinder has three objectives. Firstly, we critically evaluate Wulf's arguments and counter her false allegations and spurious reasoning. Secondly, we explain our concerns about certain aspects of attentional focusing research. Finally, we propose that in order to explore the dynamic nature of attentional focusing, we need to go beyond restrictive theoretical dichotomies (e.g., “internal” versus “external” processes) using new approaches.

Effects of conductor verbal and nonverbal instructions on changes in singer voicing behaviors: A survey of recent research

Vocal and choral music professionals seek to guide their singers to efficient and beautiful vocal production. They do so using a multitude of techniques, some of which have been passed along from one generation of teachers to the next. These techniques include giving singers a particular focus of attention and displaying varied conducting gestures designed to evoke specific voicing behaviors. Despite the prevalence of these techniques, few researchers have investigated whether they consistently change the acoustical output or the muscle engagement used by individual singers or choristers. This presentation provides an overview of recent research that has sought to quantify the voicing behaviors of individual singers as they (a) sang a short melody while focusing on various internal or external foci, (b) viewed varied conductor preparatory (inhalation) gestures prior to singing a short melody, and (c) viewed varied conductor final release (cutoff) gestures at the end of a short melody. The resulting acoustical, biomedical, and perceptual data inform the pedagogical implications that are discussed throughout.

Children's learning of tennis skills is facilitated by external focus instructions

The present study examined the effects of instructions promoting external versus internal foci of attention on the learning of a tennis forehand stroke in 11-year old children. Three groups of participants practiced hitting tennis balls at a target. External focus group participants were instructed to direct their attention to the movement of the racquet, while participants in the internal focus group were asked to direct their attention to the movements of their arm. Participants in a control group did not receive attentional focus instructions. Two days after the practice phase (60 trials), learning was assessed in retention and transfer tests. The results showed that the external focus group demonstrated greater accuracy in hitting a target relative to the two other groups in retention, and relative to the internal focus group in transfer. We conclude that instructions inducing an external focus of attention can enhance children's sport skill learning.

Beyond Preparation: Identity, Cultural Capital, and Readiness for Graduate School in the Biomedical Sciences.

In this study, we conducted in-depth interviews with 52 college graduates as they entered a Postbaccalaureate Research Education Program (PREP). Our goal was to investigate what it means for these aspiring scientists, most of whom are from groups underrepresented in the sciences, to feel ready to apply to a doctoral program in the biomedical sciences. For our analysis, we developed and used a theoretical framework which integrates concepts from identity-in-practice literature with Bourdieu's formulation of cultural capital and also examined the impact of racial, ethnic, and gender identities on education and career trajectories. Five patterns of identity work for expected engagement with PREP grew out of our analysis: Credential Seekers, PI Aspirants, Path Builders, Discipline Changers, and Interest Testers. These patterns illuminate differences in perceptions of doing, being, and becoming within science; external and internal foci of identity work; and expectations for institutional and embodied cultural capital. Our findings show that preparing for graduate education is more complex than acquiring a set of credentials as it is infused with identity work which facilitates readiness beyond preparation. This deeper understanding of individual agency and perceptions allows us to shift the focus away from a deficit model where institutions and programs attempt to "fix" students, and to offer implications for programs designed to support college graduates aspiring to become scientists.

Contending with Violence: Female Prostitutes' Strategic Responses on the Streets

Female street prostitutes often work within environments where violence is a prominent feature of daily life. Consequently, they experience high rates of physical and sexual assault. While scholars debate whether they are victims or empowered agents, we find neither category accurately captures their experiences with work-related violence. Drawing on interviews and informal conversations with 17 female street prostitutes, we illustrate they engage in four nuanced types of strategies in response to violence, which are shaped by the options available to them. We also find each type has an external or internal foci that holds implications for their own criminality.

Effects of internal and external attentional foci on motor skill learning: testing the automation hypothesis

PurposeThis study investigated if (1) the beneficial effects of an external focus of attention on learning a motor skill were influenced by an internal focus of attention provided at initial instruction (2) or by an internal focus of attention at the early stage of the acquisition phase and (3) their relation to the automation hypothesis.MethodsThree separate experiments were performed with 168 college students on the acquisition, transfer, and retention of a golf-putting task.ResultsIn conjunction, the results of the three experiments pointed to the positive effects of an internal attention of focus instructions followed by an external attentional focus on motor learning.ConclusionsThese results support the development of an alternative hypothesis on the effects of attentional focus on motor skill acquisition.

A distal external focus enhances novice dart throwing performance

The present study examined the effectiveness of distal versus proximal external foci of attention as a function of performers' preferences for a certain focus. We used a dart throwing task, and participants were instructed to direct their attention either to the target (distal focus) or the flight of the dart (proximal focus). Participants were asked to select their preferred focus after one trial under each focus condition without knowledge of results. Subsequently, all participants performed two 24-trial blocks, one under each condition, with focus order (preferred first vs. non-preferred) counterbalanced. Significantly more participants preferred the distal compared to the proximal focus. Also, dart throwing accuracy was generally enhanced when participants adopted a distal focus, regardless of focus order or preference. The present findings provide further evidence that the “distance” effect in attentional focus is a general phenomenon that does not depend on individual preferences.

Stres, Anksiyete ve Fonksiyonel Gastrointestinal Bozukluklar

Stress has major role in functional gastrointestinal system disorders. The most typical example of this situation is Irritable bowel syndrome. Gastrointestinal system’s response to acute or short-term of stress is delay of gastric emptying and stimulation of colonic transition. While CRF2 receptors are mediate the upper section inhibition, CRF1 is responsible for the lower part colonic and anxiogenic response. Visceral hypersensitivity is managed by the emotional motor system, the amygdala plays a significant role and mucosal mast cells arise. But in people with symptoms of functional gastrointestinal, how is differ motility response in healthy individuals, this situation is due to lack of autonomous nervous system or an increased sensitivity of stress is not adequately understood. The brain-gastrointestinal axis frequency and severity of symptoms associated with negative emotions. American Gastroenterology Association is closely associated with the quality of life and is very difficult to treat the symptoms of gastrointestinal disorders, re-interpreted under the heading of 'Gastrointestinal Distress'. This review is defined as gastrointestinal distresses, physical, emotional, and behavioral components as a disorder in which, almost like an anxiety disorder are discussed. Physical component is pain, gas, and defecation problems, cognitive component is external foci control, catastrophization and anticipatory anxiety, the emotional component is somatic anxiety, hypervigilance, and avoidance of gastrointestinal stimuli as defined.