Abstract
The present study examined the effects of instructions promoting external versus internal foci of attention on the learning of a tennis forehand stroke in 11-year old children. Three groups of participants practiced hitting tennis balls at a target. External focus group participants were instructed to direct their attention to the movement of the racquet, while participants in the internal focus group were asked to direct their attention to the movements of their arm. Participants in a control group did not receive attentional focus instructions. Two days after the practice phase (60 trials), learning was assessed in retention and transfer tests. The results showed that the external focus group demonstrated greater accuracy in hitting a target relative to the two other groups in retention, and relative to the internal focus group in transfer. We conclude that instructions inducing an external focus of attention can enhance children's sport skill learning.
Highlights
Post-hoc tests confirmed that the external focus group differed from both the internal focus and control groups (p < .05), whereas the internal focus and control groups’ performances did not differ
Children learning a tennis forehand stroke benefited more from external focus instructions that directed their attention to the movement of the racquet as compared with internal focus instructions that directed attention to their arm motion, or no specific focus instructions
The learning advantages seen with external relative to internal focus instructions are consistent with previous studies with typical children (Wulf et al, 2010), or children with intellectual disabilities (Chiviacowsky et al, 2013), as well as studies with adult learners
Summary
Instructions for motor learning differ in their effectiveness depending on how they direct the performer’s attention. Instructions promoting an external focus on the intended movement effect (e.g., movement of an implement or support surface, intended trajectory of an object, target) have been found to result in enhanced learning relative to instructions referring to body movement (internal focus) (Wulf, 2007). Benefits of instructions or augmented feedback promoting an external focus have been demonstrated for different skills, levels of expertise, and healthy individuals as well as those with motor or cognitive impairments (for a review, see Wulf, 2013). An external focus speeds the learning process relative to an internal focus which tends to interfere with automatic processes (Wulf et al, 2001). Control conditions without specific focus instructions typically have similar effects as internal focus conditions and are less effective than external focus conditions (e.g., Freudenheim, Wulf, Madureira, & Corrêa, 2010; Wulf, Höß, & Prinz, 1998, Experiment 1; Wulf, Landers, Lewthwaite, & Töllner, 2009)
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