Extensional System Research Articles

Cenozoic structural deformation and dynamic processes of the Bohai Bay basin province, China

Cenozoic structures in the Bohai Bay basin province can be subdivided into eleven extensional systems and three strike-slip systems. The extensional systems consist of normal faults and transfer faults. The normal faults predominantly trend NNE and NE, and their attitudes vary in different tectonic settings. Paleogene rifting sub-basins were developed in the hanging walls of the normal faults that were most likely growth faults. Neogene–Quaternary sequences were deposited in both the rifting sub-basins and horsts to form a unified basin province. The extensional systems were overprinted by three NNE-trending, right-lateral strike-slip systems (fault zones). Although the principal displacement zones (PDZ) of the strike-slip fault zones are developed only in the basement and lower basin sequences in some cross sections, the structural deformation characteristics of the upper basin sequences also indicate that they are basement-involved, right-lateral strike-slip fault zones. According to the relationships between faults and sedimentary sequences, the extensional systems were mainly developed from the middle Paleocene to the late Oligocene, whereas the strike-slip systems were mainly developed from the Oligocene to the Miocene. Strike-slip deformation was intensified as extensional deformation was weakened. Extensional deformation was derived from horizontal tension induced by upwelling of hot mantle material, whereas strike-slip deformation was probably related to a regional stress field induced by plate movement.

The Vallo di Diano and Auletta extensional basins in the southern Apennines (Italy): a simple model for a complex setting

AbstractThe aim of this paper was to provide a significant case‐history concerning the evolution of a segmented system of extensional faults and related basins, investigated by a set of seismic reflection profiles. We investigated two kinematically linked semi‐grabens, developed at the hangingwall of two opposite‐dipping normal faults: the Vallo di Diano and Auletta basins, located in the southern Apennines, one of the most seismically active regions of the Italian peninsula. Our interpretation suggests that the Pliocene–Quaternary tectonic history consists of a single extensional phase, where the major NW–SE trending normal faults, generating the basins, and the strike‐slip and transtensional faults connecting adjacent normal fault segments, simultaneously act, being part of the same extensional system. We also conclude that major normal faults, bordering the basins, should be considered as potential seismogenic sources in the seismic hazard evaluation.

Major structural elements of the Miocene section, Burgos Basin, northeastern Mexico

Major Miocene structural elements of the Burgos Basin include a regionwide detachment system that connects extensional fault systems throughout the basin with an active diapir belt downdip, a regionwide pattern of downthrown extensional rollover folds, pervasive secondary faults, and salt and shale diapiric masses in the eastern part of the basin. An interpretation of two-dimensional seismic data suggests that the Burgos Basin Miocene section can be divided into four structural domains: expanded zone, Lamprea trend, Corsair-Wanda trend, and diapir belt. The westernmost unexpanded zone is the footwall of the expanded system part of the basin, which overlies a domain of Oligocene extension. Remaining trends represent an extensional accommodation related to the basinward migration of mobile salt and shale, which has produced a relatively uniform structural style in the Miocene section. The structural style observed in the Burgos Basin appears to define a transitional zone between gravitational collapse in the offshore Laguna Madre-Tuxpan shelf to the south and salt-related raft tectonics of the south Texas Gulf Coast.

The 1997–98 Umbria–Marche earthquake sequence: “Geological” vs. “seismological” faults

The 1997–98 Umbria–Marche earthquake provided a huge amount of good quality seismological data. The geology of the region has been extensively mapped for over a century by geologists from all over the world. The subsurface geology is constrained by a set of seismic reflection profiles and deep boreholes, acquired for oil exploration. The earthquake stimulated the acquisition of many other geological and geophysical data-sets (surface ruptures, structural analysis, geodetic data, geoeletrical data, etc.). As a consequence, the 1997–98 earthquake is one of the best case studies in the world for extensional earthquakes, driving the possibility of building up an integrated model of an extensional system. We use this favourable test-site to discuss the possibility of integrating and connecting the “seismological” faults (i.e. the short term, instantaneous ruptures generated during the earthquakes, representing the effect of a single event) and the “geological faults” (i.e. the long-term, active faults, exposed at the surface, that are the effects of multiple repeated events of faulting). The review of this complex data-set points to an integrated model, where the moderate seismicity of the region is driven by SW-dipping normal faults, whose dip changes with depth, from 60°–70° (the fault surfaces mapped at the surface), to 35°–45° (the fault segments ruptured during the earthquake, at depths of 2–8 km), to less than 20° at depth > 8 km. These normal faults are not inherited from previous tectonic events. However, the pre-existing arc-shaped compressional structures act as barriers segmenting the extensional fault system. The depth and thickness of the seismogenic layer is lithologically controlled, since the seismicity is confined within the sedimentary cover and do not penetrate the underlying basement. The mainshocks are located close to the bottom of the seismogenic layer, within the Triassic evaporites.

Melt migration and intrusion in the Erro-Tobbio peridotites (Ligurian Alps, Italy): Insights on magmatic processes in extending lithospheric mantle

The Alpine/Apennine ophiolites are largely thought to represent lithosphere sectors mostly formed at an ocean/continent transition and allow the direct observation of petrologic and geodynamic processes in extensional systems evolving from continental rifting to ultraslow spreading. The Alpine/Apennine peridotites experienced multiple melt/rock interaction and melt intrusion events occurred at different lithospheric depths, thus providing insights on mantle dynamics and lithosphere-asthenosphere interactions during progressive lithosphere extension. Here we present an overview of this multi-stage melt migration and intrusion history, as recorded in the Erro-Tobbio (ET) peridotites (Ligurian Alps, Italy). In the ET spinel peridotites, the oldest intrusion event is documented by the diffuse occurrence of cm-scale folded pyroxenite bands. They display variably fractionated REE spectra, marked by LREE depletion and absent Eu N anomaly. Unusual trace element signature (high Sc,V contents and low MREE/HREE ratios) in clinopyroxenes from one pyroxenite layer is witness of a precursor garnet-bearing magmatic assemblage. Spinel pyroxenites likely originated as high- P (> 15–20 kbar) intrusions that preceded the extension-related peridotite exhumation. In the spinel peridotites, field, textural and chemical evidence ( e.g . olivine embayment replacing pyroxene porphyroclasts, increasing modal olivine at constant bulk Mg values), points that they experienced open-system melt migration by reactive porous flow, subsequent to pyroxenite intrusion and folding. Melt/rock interaction (causing olivine crystallization and pyroxene dissolution) occurred at high melt volumes at deep lithospheric levels. At shallower lithospheric depths, the ET peridotites were impregnated by melts causing significant plagioclase enrichment and crystallization of poikilitic orthopyroxene replacing mantle olivine and clinopyroxene. Reacted clinopyroxenes preserve strong LREE depletion, indicating that impregnating melts originated as depleted melt fractions. After impregnation, peridotites underwent multiple gabbroic intrusion events. Structural and geochemical features of melt impregnation and melt intrusion products point to a progressive change in melt composition and dynamics. Peridotite impregnation was caused by diffuse migration of opx-saturated depleted melts, and is consistent with cooling and crystallization of migrating melts when the peridotites, due to lithosphere extension and thinning, became part of shallower and colder lithospheric environments. The subsequent intrusion events originated by MORB-type aggregated magmas that had not experienced significant compositional modifications during ascent. The transition from porous flow melt migration to emplacement of magmas in fractures reflects progressive change of the lithospheric mantle rheology, across the ductile to brittle transition, during extension-related uplift and cooling of the ET mantle.

Geophysical evidence of crustal-heterogeneity control of fault growth in the Neocomian Iguatu basin, NE Brazil

Models of fault growth propose that rift initiation starts with short fault segments. Knowledge of the growth of these segments and their interactions is important to understanding rift geometry and evolution. In the northern part of the Borborema Province, northeastern Brazil, a continental-scale, Cretaceous extensional system of faults has been observed to have reactivated ductile Precambrian shear zones. The faults form small grabens that represent the rift stage of the sedimentary basins. We integrated airborne radiometric and magnetic data with terrestrial gravity survey to investigate the influence of crustal heterogeneity on fault growth and the development of the extensional faults in one of these grabens, the Iguatu basin. Previous studies presented geophysical data, which provide evidence that the Iguatu basin contains a half-graben geometry. In our study, gravity and airborne geophysical data indicate that the basement of the Iguatu basin is part of a heterogeneous structural framework composed of two structural domains, is affected by several ductile shear zones and intruded by a few granite bodies. The gravity modeling reveals that this basin is composed of three right-bend en echelon fault segments. They form a sigmoid system of normal faults that accommodate the strong ∼90° bend of the Precambrian shear zones from E–W to roughly N–S. The growth of these segments led to the generation of two isolated depocenters. The overlapping fault segments link through relay ramps. Release faults that are nearly perpendicular or oblique to the three main fault segments form marginal strike ramps and horst structures in both depocenters. 3D-gravity modeling incorporates the presence of interfering sources of a heterogeneous structural framework. The modeling reveals a maximum sedimentary cover 1620 m thick, which occurs at the bend of the reactivated shear zones. The gravity signature of a possible granite body, after removal of the gravity effect of the basin-filling deposits, indicates that this possible intrusion forms a horst oriented roughly parallel to the basement fabric. The relationship between maximum displacement and fault length indicates that the fault segments formed independently during the initiation of the half-graben. But the fault segments, linked by relay ramps, influence the development of one another. We interpret the segments to represent a pre-linkage, multisegmented stage of an aborted rift system. This pattern of fault growth may have also influenced the rift stage of other sedimentary basins in the region.

The geodynamics of lithospheric extension

Lithospheric extension is a fundamental plate tectonic process controlling the collapse of mountain belts, the break-up of continents and the formation of new oceanic basins. This review summarises major advances on understanding: a) the nature of the ocean–continent transition, b) the origin and evolution of detachment faults, c) the dynamic strength of continental lithosphere during extension, and d) the role of magmatism during extension. Major steps have been made in mapping out the complexities of the ocean–continent transition zone, particularly in magma-poor rifted margins, where extensional structures are not masked by voluminous magmatism. The role of detachment faulting during rifting seems to be crucial and explains observations on depth-dependent stretching of the lithosphere. Despite new insights into the dynamic behaviour of the lithosphere, its rheological response remains a major uncertainty in modelling the evolution of extensional systems. Likewise, the multiple roles that basaltic magmatism may have in modifying extension remain a key question. Future insights into the global behaviour of extensional systems will be gained by constraining lithospheric rheology through integrating structural evolution and magmatism in the field, geodetic measurements of active extension, thermochronology, seismic surveys and drilling programs.

Death Valley turtlebacks: Mesozoic contractional structures overprinted by Cenozoic extension and metamorphism beneath syn-extensional plutons

The term turtleback was first coined to describe the curvilinear fault surfaces that produced a distinctive geomorphic form in the Black Mountains east of Death Valley, and although it was decades before their full significance was appreciated, they remain one of the most distinctive features of the extensional structure of the Death Valley region. Historically the interpretation of the features has varied markedly, and misconceptions about their character continue to abound, including descriptions in popular field guides for the area. It the 1990's, however, the full history of the systems began to be apparent from several key data: 1) the dating of the plutonic assemblage associated with the turtlebacks demonstrated that late Miocene, syn-extensional plutonism was fundamental to their formation; 2) the plutonic assemblage forms an intrusive sheet structurally above the turtlebacks, indicating a tie between much of the high grade metamorphism and Cenozoic plutonism; 3) a modern analog for the syn-extensional plutonism in the Black Mountains was recognized beneath Death Valley with the imaging of a mid-crustal magma body; 4) the Neogene structural history was worked out in the turtlebacks showing that folding of early-formed shear zones formed the turtleback anticlinoria but overprinting by brittle faults produced the final form as they cut obliquely across the older structure; and 5) the pre-extensional structural history was clarified, demonstrating that Mesozoic basement-involved thrust systems are present within the turtlebacks, but have been overprinted by the extensional system. An unresolved issue is the significance of Eocene U-Pb dates for pegmatites within the region, but presumably these relate somehow to the pre-extensional history. Miller and Pavlis (2005; E. Sci. Rev.) reviewed many features of the turtlebacks, and our working model for the region is that the turtlebacks originated as mid-crustal ductile-thrust systems within the Cordilleran fold-thrust belts. Our work to the east of Death Valley suggests these thrusts were part of a NW trending thrust system that overprinted an older NE trending fold-thrust system that tracks into the Death Valley region from Nevada. These NW trending thrusts probably underlie all of the southern Black Mountains (south of the turtlebacks) and we suggest that pre-extensional structural relief along these basement thrusts placed basement at shallow crustal levels throughout what is now the Black Mountains; a conclusion consistent with the absence of rocks younger than Cambrian beneath Tertiary unconformities throughout the southern Death Valley region. In Late Miocene time, a major detachment system formed and the turtlebacks represent a mid-crustal shear zone developed during that time period, but this system is older, and structurally beneath younger detachments systems that comprise the Amargosa fault system. During motion on the detachment, an ~2km thick plutonic sheet was emplaced along the shear zone forming the Miocene plutonic assemblages of the Black Mountains, and produced upper amphibolite facies metamorphic assemblages along the floor of the pluton in what are now the Copper Canyon and Mormon Point turtlebacks, but the Badwater Turtleback escaped this metamorphism due to a different structural position. Motion continued along the floor of the pluton but syn-extensional folding produced structural relief along folds with axes parallel to the extension direction. Ultimately a new detachment system cut obliquely across the older extensional system, removing the roof of the pluton, but cutting down to its floor in the turtlebacks. This fault system formed a complex detachment system updip in the famous ‘Amargosa Chaos’, and removing the entire cover sequence from the Black Mountains (~10–12km of crustal section). The turtlebacks are therefore a composite structure in which extension contemporaneous with folding, presumably as a result of distributed transcurrent motion during extension, was critical to their formation. In addition, syn-tectonic plutonism played a key role in strain localization and metamorphism within the assemblages that comprise the turtlebacks.

Reverse structures in accommodation zone and early compartmentalization of extensional system, Laminaria High (NW shelf, Australia)

The sediments dynamics and structural development associated with the Late Jurassic rifting phase represent the key factors on the accumulation of hydrocarbon in the Timor Sea. On the Laminaria High (Bonaparte Basin) the main Oxfordian–Kimmeridgian E–W fault system forms structural traps where several discoveries have been made. Recent 3D seismic analysis has been performed based on a combination of classic structural analysis, structure-sensitive seismic attributes (grid-based, surface-based, full-volume) and meta-attribute computations. The analysis has revealed secondary reverse structures associated with the main E–W fabric and prone to act as secondary hydrocarbon traps and/or as migration barriers. The main E–W fault system consists of a complex series of sub-parallel faults that connect via relay ramps or accommodation zones. One of these zones is associated with a transverse anticline resulting from the development of a positive flower structure. The model presented in this article and supported by the interpretation of the seismic data demonstrates that the flower structure developed in an extensional setting. The formation of such a reverse structure can be related to the propagation process of the main E–W fault plane which grows by addition of secondary en-echelon tip faults. Isopach analysis and displacement pattern suggest that a zone of differential displacement occurs between two segments of the main fault plane, inducing local strike-slip movements able to form transpressional uplift associated with restraining bend. This structure related to a rotation of the stress field compartmentalises the early development of the adjacent graben and then controls the distribution of the syn-rift Frigate Fm (Oxfordian–Kimmeridgian).

Oblique half-graben inversion of the Mesozoic Neuquén Rift in the Malargüe Fold and Thrust Belt, Mendoza, Argentina: New insights from analogue models

The Malargüe fold and thrust belt, located in the Andean mountains between 34°S and 36°30′S, formed in response to contraction during Cenozoic times. Its structural style and geometry was controlled by the Mesozoic rift system that formed the Neuquén basin in west-central Argentina. The rift architecture in the southern sector of this belt was previously interpreted in terms of the present N–S compressive structural trends, assuming the inversion of pre-existing normal faults with the same orientation. Here, we propose that the NW–SE-trending El Manzano–Liu Cullín lineament, located in the northern termination of the Sierra Azul, reflects the presence of a half-graben master fault in the subsurface. This hypothesis is supported by subsurface data, a balanced cross section, and it is tested using a series of scaled sandbox analogue models. We suggest that the lineament responds to a reactivated NW-trending half-graben fault, hidden by the mainly N–S-trending Andean structures. The proposed orientation is in agreement with the NE–SW extension developed in the Neuquén basin during the Triassic–Early Jurassic. The modeling of the inverted oblique half-graben reveals that the strikes of the main structures of inversion-related belts may often be independent of the orientation of the previously developed extensional system, providing a new perspective for their interpretation.

Strain localisation and weakening of the lithosphere during extension

We explore the sensitivity of extensional systems to the thermal structure of the lithosphere using numerical simulations that fully couple the energy, momentum and continuity equations. The rheology of the lithosphere is controlled by weakening processes, such as shear heating, that localises strain into shear zones and faults. Numerical models show that during extension of an initially unpatterned lithosphere, structures develop spontaneously out of basic thermodynamic energy fluxes, and without the imposition of ad hoc rules on strain localisation. This contrasts with the classical Mohr–Coulomb theory for brittle localisation, which prescribes the angles of faults by a mathematical rule. Our results show that the mode of extension is sensitive to subtle changes in rheology, heat flux and geometry of the system. This sensitivity lies at the core of the variety and complexity observed in extensional systems. Localisation processes make the lithosphere weaker than previously estimated from the Brace–Goetze quasi-static approach. Consequently, typical estimates for plate tectonic forces are capable of splitting the lithosphere under extension, even without the role of active magmatism.

Evolution and dynamics of the Cenozoic tectonics of the South Balkan extensional system

The South Balkan extensional system consists of normal faults and associated sedimentary basins within southern Bulgaria, Macedonia, eastern Albania, northern Greece, and northwestern Turkey. Extensional tectonism began during the final convergence across the Vardar, Intra-Pontide, and Izmir-Ankara suture zones, where oceanic regions closed between continental Europe and continental fragments that make up the Pelagonian, Sakar, and western Anatolian tectonic units. Earliest extension of latest Cretaceous– middle Eocene age appears to have occurred within a regional convergent tectonic setting and may be related to an increase in gravitation potential energy within a thickening continental lithosphere. Following diachronous closure across the suture zone, from the middle Eocene to late Oligocene, the transition from a regionally convergent to a regionally extensional tectonic setting occurred and was associated with abundant magmatism and formation of sedimentary basins. Extension was associated with lithospheric thinning probably related to changes in geometry of the subducted slab, dynamics of the mantle wedge, and beginning of slab rollback along the Hellenic subduction zone. A short period of local and diachronous (?) shortening (during latest Oligocene–early Miocene time) occurred in the Thrace basin of northwestern Turkey and in some basins in western Bulgaria and eastern Macedonia. Regional extension began in middle Miocene time and was related to the regional extensional tectonic setting that has dominated the Aegean extensional region to the present. Trench rollback was the dominant dynamic process, but during late Miocene time it was modified by the formation of the western part of the North Anatolian fault zone that partially decoupled the South Balkan extensional system from the Aegean extensional region. During late Cenozoic time, east-west–striking normal faults and associated sedimentary basins in the eastern part of the South Balkan extensional system propagated westward in tandem with westward migration of north-south–striking normal faults and sedimentary basins from western Bulgaria into eastern Albania. This migration was caused by evolution of the Hellenic subduction zone as it increased its curvature during trench rollback and clockwise and counterclockwise rotation of crustal fragments in the west and east, respectively. After formation of the western part of the North Anatolian fault zone, extension within the eastern part of the South Balkan extensional system was related to southward movement of its lithosphere at a slower rate than the extension within the Aegean extensional region. Active extension and basin formation show two provinces of extension that are nearly at right angles to one another and their overlap in the central South Balkan extensional system: east-west extension in central Albania to eastern Macedonia and north-south extension from northwestern Greece and eastern Macedonia to eastern Bulgaria and northwestern Turkey.

Disruption of the Hellenic arc: Late Miocene extensional detachment faults and steep Pliocene‐Quaternary normal faults—Or what happened at Corinth?

Extensional faults exposed in the Peloponnesus and mainland Greece, most of which are described here for the first time, record a transition from regional extension of the Aegean domain to the modern tectonic system. The East Peloponnesus Detachment System trends north‐northwest from the southern Peloponnesus to ∼30 km north of the Gulf of Corinth, dips gently northeast, and is late Miocene–early Pliocene in age. It has a minimum displacement of 25–30 km and appears to be the youngest of the regional‐scale extensional systems with significant displacement that formed parallel to the Hellenic arc. The partially coeval East Sterea Extensional System, which extends from the Gulf of Corinth to the Aegean Sea, contains low‐angle normal faults that both crosscut and trend parallel to older structures of the Hellenic arc. Late Miocene to early Pliocene displacement within this zone disrupted the arc‐parallel structures of the Hellenides. Upper Pliocene‐Quaternary normal faults, which trend approximately east‐west and generally dip steeply at the surface, continue the disruption of the Hellenic arc. Much of the subsidence within the Gulf of Corinth appears to be unrelated to the younger faults and is instead related to the motion on the East Peloponnesus Detachment, which crosscuts the modern graben.

Microstructures in the Cretaceous Bima Sandstone, Upper Benue Trough, N.E. Nigeria: Implication for hydrocarbon migration

Faulting related to movements along major fault zones in the Upper Benue Trough during Albian times, with evidence of deformation in the Cretaceous Bima Sandstone are common especially around the Kaltungo, Gombe, Zambuk and Teli lineaments. Conjugate extensional systems of deformation bands show increased siliceous cementation of the sandstones adjacent to these lineaments. During the Late Cretaceous compressional event, the deformation bands and faults in the Upper Benue Trough were reactivated, resulting into dilational opening of fractures believed to have acted as fluid conduits and/or barriers. These deformation bands which decrease in density away from the major faults are characterized with increasing porosity and permeability in the host sandstone abruptly away from the tectonic barrier. It is proposed here that the master faults of the Benue Trough, linking it with the Anambra Basin and the Niger Delta probably served as conduits for the migration of hydrocarbons into the Cretaceous reservoirs of the Upper Benue Trough and by extension into the Niger Delta.

Modelling the extension of heterogeneous hot lithosphere

The consequences of weak heterogeneities in the extension of soft and hot lithosphere without significant previous crustal thickening has been analysed in a series of centrifuge models. The experiments examined the effects of i) the location of heterogeneities in the ductile crust and/or in the lithospheric mantle, and ii) their orientation, perpendicular or oblique to the direction of bulk extension. The observed deformation patterns are all relevant to the so-called “wide rifting” mode of extension. Weak zones located in the ductile crust exert a more pronounced influence on localisation of deformation in the brittle layer than those located in the lithospheric mantle: the former localise faulting in the brittle crust whereas the latter tend to distribute faulting over a wider area. This latter behaviour depends in turn upon the decoupling provided by the ductile crust. Localised thinning in the brittle crust is accompanied by ductile doming of both crust and mantle. Domains of maximum thinning in the brittle crust and ductile crust and mantle are in opposition. Lateral differences in brittle crust thinning are accommodated by lateral flow in the ductile crust and mantle. This contrasts with “cold and strong” lithospheres whose high strength sub-Moho mantle triggers a necking instability at the lithosphere-scale. This also differs from the extension of thickened hot and soft lithospheres whose ductile crust is thick enough to give birth to metamorphic core complexes. Thus, for the given lithospheric rheology, the models have relevance to backarc type extensional systems, such as the Aegean and the Tyrrhenian domains.

Cenozoic evolution of the eastern Pamir: Implications for strain-accommodation mechanisms at the western end of the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen

Detailed field mapping, geochronologic and thermochronologic analyses, and petrologic investigations conducted along the southern segment of the late Cenozoic Kongur Shan extensional system provide new information on the Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the eastern Pamir at the western end of the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen. Field relations and cooling-age patterns in the hanging wall and footwall of the active faults show a southward decrease in the magnitude of east-west extension along the southern Kongur Shan extensional system, from 20 km or less along the Muztaghata massif in the north, to l3 km along the Tashkorgan fault in the south. These results, in conjunction with previously published work on the northern segment of the Kongur Shan extensional system, show a general southward decrease in east-west extension along the entire length of the extensional system, consistent with models of extension primarily driven by oroclinal bending or radial thrusting of the Pamir. Petrologic data, 40 Ar/ 39 Ar cooling ages, and monazite Th-Pb ages from schists and gneisses in the footwall of the southern Kongur Shan normal fault along the Muztaghata massif record two tectonic events that immediately preceded late Miocene initiation of east-west extension: (1) high-grade schists and gneisses experienced upper amphibolite facies metamorphic conditions (9–10 kbar, 700–750 °C) dated as late Oligocene to middle Miocene by in situ ion-microprobe analyses of monazite inclusions in garnet; and (2) high-grade schists and gneisses were subsequently rapidly exhumed to shallow crustal levels in the late Miocene with 40 Ar/ 39 Ar biotite cooling ages of 7.5–9 Ma. Rapid exhumation was accommodated in part by the east-west–striking, south-dipping, Shenti normal fault. Field relations and regional geologic correlations indicate that this exhumation event was related to the formation of the Central Pamir gneiss domes, and the antiformal Muztaghata massif is the eastward continuation of the Sares dome of the Central Pamir. These observations suggest that the antiformal gneiss domes of the Central Pamir have not been offset across the Karakorum right-slip fault from the Qiangtang anticlinorium in Tibet. Instead, we propose that the development of the Central Pamir gneiss domes may have been related to Oligocene-Miocene northward underthrusting and thickening of crust beneath the Pamir.

Structural framework and Mesozoic–Cenozoic evolution of Ponta Grossa Arch, Paraná Basin, southern Brazil

The integration of structural analyses of outcrops, aerial photographs, satellite images, aeromagnetometric data, and digital terrain models can establish the structural framework and paleostress trends related to the evolution of Ponta Grossa Arch, one of the most important structures of the Paraná Basin in southern Brazil. In the study area, the central-northern region of Paraná State, Brazil, the arch crosses outcropping areas of the Pirambóia, Botucatu, and Serra Geral Formations (São Bento Group, Mesozoic). The Pirambóia and Botucatu Formations are composed of quartz sandstones and subordinated siltstones. The Serra Geral Formation comprises tholeiitic basalt lava flows and associated intrusive rocks. Descriptive and kinematic structural analyses reveal the imprint of two brittle deformation phases: D1, controlled by the activation of an extensional system of regional faults that represent a progressive deformation that generated discontinuous brittle structures and dike swarm emplacement along a NW–SE trend, and D2, which was controlled by a strike-slip (transtensional) deformation system, probably of Late Cretaceous–Tertiary age, responsible for important fault reactivation along dykes and deformation bands in sandstones.

Fluid circulation related to post‐Messinian extension, Thassos Island, North Aegean

AbstractIn the North Aegean Domain, Thassos Island contains a Plio‐Pleistocene basin controlled by a large‐scale flat‐ramp extensional system with a potential décollement located at depth within a marble unit. Numerous mineralizations associated with normal faults of Plio‐Pleistocene age are the sign of fluid circulation during extension. Two main generations of fluid flow are recognized, related to Plio‐Pleistocene extension. A first circulation under high‐temperature conditions (about 100–200°C) resulted in dolomitization of marbles near the base of the Plio‐Pleistocene basin. The dolomites are characterized by low δ18O values (down to 11‰ versus Standard Mean Ocean Water). Some cataclastic deformation affected the dolomites. Hydrothermal quartz that crystallized in extension veins above a blind ramp also has low δ18O values (about 13‰). This shows that high‐temperature fluids moved up from the décollement level toward the surface. A second downward circulation of continental waters at near‐surface temperature is documented by calcite veins in fault zones and at the base of the Plio‐Pleistocene basin. These veins have O isotope values relatively constant at about 23–25‰ and C isotope values intermediate between the high δ13C value of the carbonate host rock (about 1–3‰ versus Peedee Belemnite) and the low δ13C value of soil‐derived carbon (−10‰). The calcites associated with the oxidative remobilization of primary sulphide Zn–Pb mineralization of Thassos carbonates have comparable O and C isotope compositions. Hot fluids, within the 100–200°C temperature range, have likely contributed to the weakening of the lower marble unit of Thassos and, thus, to the process of décollement.

About this title - Imaging, Mapping and Modelling Continental Lithosphere Extension and Breakup

This book summarizes our present understanding of the formation of passive continental margins and their ocean–continent transitions. It outlines the geological, geophysical and petrological observations that characterize extensional systems, and how such observations can guide and constrain dynamic and kinematic models of continental lithosphere extension, breakup and the inception of organized sea-floor spreading. The book focuses on imaging, mapping and modelling lithospheric extensional systems, at both the regional scale using dynamic models to the local scale of individual basins using kinematic models, with an emphasis on capturing the extensional history of the Iberia and Newfoundland margins. The results from a number of other extensional regimes are presented to provide comparisons with the North Atlantic studies; these range from the Tethyan realm and the northern Red Sea to the western and southern Australian margins, the Basin and Range Province, and the Woodlark basin of Papua New Guinea. All of these field studies, combined with lessons learnt from the modelling, are used to address fundamental questions about the extreme deformation of continental lithosphere.

Imaging, mapping and modelling continental lithosphere extension and breakup: an introduction

Abstact This Special Publication is a direct outcome of a small but dedicated group of researchers who met in Pontresina, Switzerland, to review and define the fundamental observations characterizing extensional systems and their application in guiding and constraining modelling efforts and results. The various summaries of the keynote addresses give an objective overview of the state of the art in modelling lithospheric extensional systems, both from the regional scale using dynamic models to individual basins using kinematic models with an emphasis on capturing the extensional history of the Iberia and Newfoundland margins. At the heart of all of these efforts is a simple question: Exactly what mechanisms allow the continental lithosphere to be thinned to the point of rupture? Related questions are: (1) Do crustal and mantle faults play a major role in this thinning process? If so, what is their geometry and does their importance and geometry change with time? (2) Are there other mechanisms of lithospheric and crustal thinning that cannot be imaged on seismic sections? (3) How is deformation accommodated in space and time? (4) What role do inherited mechanical, thermal and/or chemical heterogeneities play in controlling strain distribution and localization? (5) When, how and to what degree does magma production affect the distribution and localization of extension? And (6) what is the stratigraphic record of continental extension and how does it document the extension of the crust and thinning of the lithospheric mantle? The aim of this Special Publication is to address many of these fundamental questions concerning the extreme extension and thinning of continental lithosphere.