Extension Services Research Articles

Newcastle disease awareness and vaccination practices among indigenous chicken farmers in the Biharamulo district of Tanzania

BackgroundIndigenous chicken production is a significant economic activity in rural sub-Saharan Africa. These chickens are naturally resilient to unfavourable environmental conditions such as poor-quality feed and infections, making them ideal for village conditions. However, Newcastle disease is a major challenge to village chicken production. Since the chickens are kept in a free-range system, they are more likely to catch the disease from the environment and spread it throughout the whole village. Vaccination is one of the main strategies for controlling Newcastle disease. However, various socio-economic and local environmental issues impede vaccination efforts. The study examined the awareness of and vaccination of indigenous chickens against Newcastle disease in rural areas of the Biharamulo district in northern Tanzania. It sought to understand the extent of knowledge among farmers about the disease, the availability of vaccines, and the factors influencing vaccination uptake. Data collection methods included household interviews, focus group talks, and key informant interviews.ResultsThe findings reveal both challenges and opportunities for improving Newcastle disease control and promoting sustainable poultry farming in the region. While most farmers reported being aware of Newcastle disease, many did not vaccinate their chickens. Those who vaccinated their chickens did so irregularly or used herbal medicines as vaccines. Various socio-demographic aspects, including the age and education level of the chicken owner, awareness of the disease, production experience, and previous experience with Newcastle disease outbreaks, determined the probability of vaccination. The farmers identified limited information about Newcastle disease vaccination as a major constraint on vaccinating their flocks.ConclusionThe study underscores the need for targeted interventions to improve Newcastle disease control among indigenous chicken farmers in rural areas of Biharamulo district. Addressing these challenges requires strengthening farmer education, expanding access to vaccines, and enhancing extension services. Promoting community-based vaccination programs and awareness campaigns can help bridge these gaps, contributing to sustainable poultry farming and improved livelihoods in the region.

Exploring the entrepreneurial behavior of vegetable growers: influential factors and implications for agricultural development

IntroductionEntrepreneurship in agricultural sector is a key enabler of rural development and economic growth. This research delves into the entrepreneurial behavior of vegetable growers involved in polyhouse protected farming and focuses on the factors that influence their entrepreneurial pursuits.MethodsThe research employed a mixed sampling methodology and the data collection was done by personally interviews. Whereas, data were analyzed using various statistical techniques including Entrepreneurial behavior index computation and Kendall’s tau correlation.ResultsThe results of the study reveal noteworthy associations between factors such as farm income, experience in protected cultivation, area allocated for polyhouse cultivation and extension contact with entrepreneurial behavior. Notably, income consistently demonstrated a positive correlation with all aspects of entrepreneurial behavior, while experience and extension contact also exhibited significant positive relationships. Conversely, education level displayed a negative correlation with risk-taking ability but a positive correlation with other dimensions such as cosmopoliteness and innovativeness. However, family size and gender did not demonstrate significant associations with entrepreneurial behavior.DiscussionThe findings underscored the intricate nature of entrepreneurial behavior among vegetable growers which necessitate tailored interventions to foster entrepreneurship in this sector. The research recommends policy measures like financial incentives, enhanced access to extension services and promoting collaboration among polyhouse cultivators to encourage entrepreneurship. These initiatives aim to overcome financial barriers, improve technical knowledge and address structural challenges, ultimately fostering sustainable entrepreneurship and agricultural development.

Increasing Agricultural Productivity with Targeted Extension and Advisory Services: Lessons from Ugandan Dairy Farming

Increasing Agricultural Productivity with Targeted Extension and Advisory Services: Lessons from Ugandan Dairy Farming

Economic feasibility and impacts of replacing tobacco with alternative crops in smallholder cropping systems: evidence from Uganda

ABSTRACT Tobacco is grown on more than 4 million hectares of global agricultural land in at least 124 countries. As a member state to the World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (WHO FCTC) international treaty, Uganda seeks to support economically viable alternative activities as a means to tobacco control because previous efforts with tobacco control that focused on the demand side have failed to control tobacco supply. This study employed the Tradeoff Analysis-Minimum Data (TOA-MD) model to assess tradeoffs and associated economic impacts of switching from tobacco to alternative crops in smallholder cropping systems. Results revealed that switching from tobacco to alternative crops is economically feasible for most of the farms owing to the higher net economic returns. The proportion of farms that expect higher returns from alternative crops is highest for cassava (97%) followed by maize (87%), rice (83%) and the least for beans (74%). Cassava is the best alternative for both small and large farms because of the highest gains in farm net returns, per capita income and poverty reduction. The next feasible crop alternatives for large farms are maize and rice. Despite their economic feasibility, alternative crops are typical of uncertain markets with unorganised structures for production. Since these are important incentives for tobacco farmers, the study recommends development of institutions that foster value chain development for alternative crops. Supporting agro-processors is likely to guarantee markets and provide for lump-sum payments, input credit for production and a reliable extension service system as way of incentivizing a sustainable switch to alternative cropping systems.

Factors Influencing the Willingness and Ability of Farmers to Adopt TELA Maize Seed in Alfred Nzo District, Eastern Cape, South Africa

In developing countries, drought is a major climatic challenge that has driven the development of drought-tolerant seed varieties aimed at improving yields and farm incomes; however, the adoption of drought-tolerant seeds, such as the TELA maize hybrid, remains low. This study explored the factors influencing the willingness and ability to adopt TELA maize seed and its potential production implications in Alfred Nzo District, Eastern Cape, South Africa. This study employed a multistage random sampling method to gather data from 120 smallholder maize farmers through a semi-structured questionnaire. Data were collected and analyzed using descriptive statistics and a probit regression model. The results showed that 65% of respondents were male, and 53% were married. Notably, 77% had low educational attainment, with the majority having completed only secondary school or less. Furthermore, 65% of respondents indicated that farming was primarily for livelihood purposes. This study found that limited access to credit and extension services were major obstacles to adopting TELA maize seed technology, compounded by skepticism towards innovation. The findings suggest that addressing these challenges requires the implementation of targeted gender equity programs, improving educational access, and enhancing financial support mechanisms. Additionally, strengthening cooperative engagement and extension services is crucial for promoting technology adoption. By fostering collaboration among stakeholders and providing adequate resources, this study highlights the potential for increased adoption of TELA maize seed, contributing to improved food security in rural households.

Effects of Integrated Soil Fertility Management Technologies on the Productivity of Sorghum in the Drier Parts of Upper Eastern Kenya

Declining soil fertility amid the devastating effects of climate change is a threat to the state of food security in developing countries like Kenya. Enhancing production intervention through sustainable farming practices like integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) technologies has been promoted. However, there is a dearth of knowledge revealing the efficacy of such technologies, especially in dry regions of the country. Therefore, this study evaluated the effect of integrated soil fertility management technologies on sorghum productivity in the drier parts of Upper Eastern Kenya. Data was collected from 370 sorghum farmers using a semi-structured questionnaire. The data was analyzed using descriptive statistics (percentages) and Propensity Score Matching (PSM). The initial PSM stage revealed that various socioeconomic and institutional aspects (subsistence farming, access to extension services, perception of innovations, road infrastructure, ISFM awareness and ISFM costs) influence the adoption decision of ISFM. Further, the findings reveal that farmers who adopted ISFM technologies recorded increased sorghum productivity. Hence, the productivity of adopters was better than that of non-adopters. Improving adoption, therefore requires the facilitation of agricultural institutions and service providers who are key in imparting vital knowledge and creating awareness of productive technologies such as ISFM. Similarly, the results have wider policy effects for agriculture, especially in places where ISFM may be very important for long-term food security and agricultural productivity.

Organic Phosphorus in the Terrestrial Environment: an Update on Current Research and Future Directions

Abstract In 2016, a group of experts convened to set priorities for organic phosphorus (P) research, addressing global issues, methodological strengths and weaknesses, and the benefits of understanding the organic P cycle. Seven years later, scientists and students with an interest in organic P reconvened to discuss progress and new insights, and this review highlights recent major research updates. Interest in organic P research has increased since 2016, and new priorities have emerged, including the impact of climate change on organic P, the influence of geopolitical crises on P supplies, and the adoption of sustainable practices like regenerative agriculture. Climate change was a central theme in the 2023 discussions, with an increased emphasis on integrating P and especially organic P into climate change research, which has traditionally focused more on carbon (C) and nitrogen (N). The discussions highlighted disparities in accessing analytical equipment globally, and its consequent impact on research quality and scope. To address these issues, coordinated efforts involving the research community, government policies, and international cooperation are needed, much the same as we see with the climate and biodiversity crises. Promoting sustainable agricultural practices, investing in soil health, and enhancing education and extension services are crucial. Future research should focus on standardizing analytical methods, integrating nutrient balance into models, and exploring soil-microbiome-plant interactions. Regular and intedisciplinary workshops, social media engagement, and the establishment of research networks are recommended to maintain momentum in organic P research. Raising public and stakeholder awareness about the importance of organic P is essential for advancing knowledge in this area.

Adoption intensity of soil and water conservation techniques in Burkina Faso is influenced by farmers’ preferences for their attributes

Soil degradation is a major cause of agricultural productivity decrease in sub-Saharan Africa. In Burkina Faso, efforts to reduce this environmental issue has emerged since several decades. However, most of the techniques developed are rarely adopted by farmers. In addition, those adopted are on small areas. This study aims to analyze the effect of farmers’ preferences for soil and water conservation techniques’ attributes on their intensity of adoption. Cross-sectional data was collected from 335 farmers in four rural municipalities in Burkina Faso, using a discrete choice experiment approach. The standard Tobit model was used for data analysis. Results showed that soil and water conservation techniques’ attributes as runoff reduction, soil fertilization and soil restoration explained farmers’ decision to adopt and intensify the adoption of these techniques. In addition, location in the northern sudanian agroecological zone, access to extension services and education influenced positively soil and water conservation techniques’ adoption intensity. However, equipment, labor and cash constraints decrease these techniques’ adoption intensity. These results suggest that incentives for the adoption and intensification policies should be oriented toward farmers’ capacities to produce quantity and quality organic fertilizers reinforcement, build an industrial unit to transform household waste into organic manure for agricultural use.

Analyzing Extension and Advisory Service Delivery Dynamics in Nepal through Social Network Analysis Lens: A Comparative Study

Aims: Amid the changes in extension and advisory service delivery after federalism in Nepal. The existing players and new players in the network influence the flow and accessibility of services, providing both opportunities and challenges. However, very few studies have been carried out. So, this research was designed to analyze the perception and diffusion flow dynamics/pattern (mediators) of public extension and advisory services at the local/municipal level in Nepal. Study Design: A cross-sectional research approach with a convergent parallel mixed-method research design was used. Methodology: A field survey was carried out by selecting 200 stakeholders using a simple random sampling method, 22 key informant interviews, and 4 focus group discussions at Chandragiri and Dakshinkali municipalities. Results: The five-point Likert Scale (13 constructs), social network analysis, and community network map revealed that the EAS network with progressive farmers (CB= 2384.94), agriculture section (CB= 1134.8), input suppliers (CB= 855.21), farmers group (CB= 511.7), and social actors (CB= 452.58) as strong mediators, had a poor perception toward current public extension and advisory services. The EAS network with agriculture section (CB= 2292), farmers group (CB= 2199.5), input suppliers (CB= 584.32,) and progressive farmers (CB= 481.9) as their strong mediators in the EAS network perceive the public EAS slightly positively. Conclusion: The research concludes that the stakeholders often neglected by government institutions but perceived strong mediators in the EAS network must be identified and prioritized for effective service delivery. The study could be a basis for the stakeholders' identification and management in the service delivery framework of public extension and advisory service delivery at the municipal/local level.

Determinants of adoption of Bt cotton among smallholder cotton producers in Kitui and Kisumu counties, Kenya.

The Government of Kenya acknowledges the importance of the cotton industry in the country's development agenda, particularly under the manufacturing pillar. To revitalize the industry, the government approved Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) cotton for commercial production in 2019. Bt cotton is promoted on the grounds that it is resistant to pests such as bollworms which can lead to a reduction in the use of pesticides, improve productivity, and in the long run deliver increased profits to farmers. While Bt Cotton has been promoted since 2019, evidence of its adoption among smallholder farmers is limited. This study assessed the determinants of Bt-cotton adoption among smallholder cotton producers in Kitui and Kisumu counties, Kenya. Data were collected through a cross-sectional survey of 389 households that were selected randomly in Kisumu (192 households) and Kitui Counties (197 households). Among the total sampled households (389), 242 were cotton farming households and 147 were households that were not growing cotton. However, in this study context, the analysis proceeded with the 242 cotton-growing households. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and Heckman’s two-stage regression model. The descriptive results showed that nearly half (47.5%) of the cotton-producing households were involved in producing the Bt cotton variety. Heckman’s two-stage model showed that increased access to land for farming (p=0.002), access to extension service (p=0.025), and expected benefits of Bt cotton (early maturity (p=0.000), and better quality of fibre had a positive influence (p=0.010) on adoption, while the distance to the output market (p=0.004) and soil fertility (p=0.076) had a negative influence on adoption. The results further showed that the intensity of adoption increased with household expenditure (p=0.012), access to credit (p=0.096), and having a positive perception of Bt cotton being drought tolerant (p=0.024). Larger household sizes (p=0.096), Bt cotton early maturity attribute (p=0.002), crop diversification (p=0.044), and increased access to land (p=0.002) had a negative influence on the intensity of adoption. The results revealed that farm and farmer characteristics, economic, and institutional factors, and attributes of Bt cotton are found to be determinants of the adoption of Bt cotton. The study recommends that the public and private sectors promote access to extension services, markets, and credit to improve the uptake of Bt cotton in Kenya.

Impact of sustained adoption of Climate-Smart Agriculture on crop productivity in the West Usambara Mountains, Tanzania

Climate change in the West Usambara Mountains has added more challenges to smallholder farmers who are already negatively affected by land degradation. Sustained adoption of Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) can improve crop productivity by addressing challenges posed by both climate change and land degradation. From 2011 to 2019, the Climate Change Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) project disseminated and promoted the use of CSA technologies to improve crop productivity. Understanding the impact of CSA on crop productivity among farming households that received interventions is crucial for advising policy and improving extension services. This study assessed the impact of sustained adoption of CSA on crop productivity after phasing out the CCAFS project. Specifically, the study assessed sustained adoption of CSA technologies and evaluated the impact of CSA on crop productivity after the CCAFS project phased out. A sample of 124 households was selected by using simple random sampling from 140 farming households that received interventions. Methods of data collection were household questionnaire survey, key informant interviews and focus group discussions. Data analysis was conducted by using descriptive analysis, paired-samples t-tests and thematic analysis. Results showed that there was an improvement in sustained adoption of tree planting (from 45% to 68%), organic fertilizers (from 64% to 82%), improved seeds (42% to 85%) and weather information services (from 36% to 72%) compared to adoption at the beginning of the project while sustained adoption of terraces (26%), minimum tillage(21%) and contour ridges(19%) remained low. The t-test shows that sustained CSA had significant impact on crop productivity since it increased crop productivity for maize, Irish potatoes, beans and cabbages by 41.9%, 65.2%, 29.2% and 44.3%, respectively after implementation of the CCAFS project. The study concludes that sustained adoption of CSA increased crop productivity in the study area. This study recommends that policymakers, agricultural extension workers and researchers continue the dissemination and promotion of CSA technologies to improve crop productivity regardless of external assistance.

An analysis of the current and potential market opportunities for hempseed and fibre: the case of Scotland?

BackgroundThe growing demand for eco-friendly food and industrial products have renewed interest in industrial hemp which is a low-cost, biodegradable, sustainable, and multi-purpose plant. Many countries in Europe and Asia have changed their laws to take advantage of the tremendous benefits that industrial hemp present. However, the development of the sector in Scotland is very slow due to stringent laws. The goal of the present study is to present policymakers with economic data on the current and potential market opportunities for industrial hemp, trends in new product development, and the state of the hemp supply chain. This study entails desk-based research primary and secondary data analysis. Primary data were collected from farmers in Aberdeenshire and Scottish borders, and secondary data were collected from the FAOSTATS Office of National Statistics and the Global New Product Database.ResultsThe results of this study show that the opportunities from hemp seed and fibre are vast: hemp can sequester more carbon dioxide than traditional crops can, improve soil biodiversity, extract toxins from soil through phytoremediation, be used as an eco-friendly insecticide and pesticide, and provide an excellent source of protein, fibre and micronutrient vitamins and minerals, as well as a range of bioactive phytochemicals. The GNPD reveals that over 4000 hemp-based products have been launched worldwide. However, the supply chain for Scottish-grown hemp faces significant bottlenecks. The sector lacks a well-established market route, faces a high licensing costs, lacks hemp seed-pressing centres, etc.ConclusionThis study is relevant because it is the first study to provide a comprehensive analysis of the industrial hemp sector in Scotland. This study makes time-bound recommendations to grow the hemp sector in Scotland, which include regular extension services, easy access to licences for production, the establishment of a hempseed and fibre processing plants, and seed production centre.

Groundnut Production and Marketing Constraint as Perceived by the Farmers of Wanaparthy District Telangana

The present study was conducted during March to June 2021–2022 in Wanaparthy district, of Telangana State. The objective of the study was to investigate and analyse the perceived constraints of the groundnut farmers in this district encounter in both the production and marketing phases. A sample of 120 groundnut farmers within Wanaparthy district was selected for the study. To rank the various constraints, the study utilized Garrett’s ranking technique, a statistical tool designed to provide a clear hierarchy of constraints based on their perceived severity. Data collection was carried out through a pre-tested interview schedule. The results revealed that the most critical constraint farmers faced was the limited access to improved, or pure seed varieties. This was identified as the top-ranked constraint followed by low germination rates of available seeds, which further exacerbated production challenges. Many farmers also reported encountering spurious seeds being sold in the market. Another major constraint highlighted in the study was the inadequacy of extension services provided to the farmers. In response to these findings, the study recommended stronger collaboration between public and private stakeholders to improve seed quality and availability. It stressed the need for certified seeds and better information dissemination to farmers. Additionally, enhancing the export quality of groundnuts was proposed as a way to increase profitability and make agriculture more sustainable and financially viable in the long run.

Decisions to Adapt Family Farms to Climate Change in Cameroon

ABSTRACTThe goal of this research is to identify the factors that explain family farm adaptation to climate change, as well as the complementarity between these various adaptation strategies. A multivariate probit model was used to analyse secondary data from 721 family farms. According to statistical analysis, 72% of farmers correctly perceive temperature increases over time and variations in rainfall as daily realities that must be incorporated into their farming practices. The most concerning phenomena are drought (52%), and flooding (34%). Econometric analysis reveals that the adaptation decision is explained by the farmer's experience, household size, farm size, religion, agroecological zone, producer cooperation, and credit facilities. Specifically, farm size had a positive and statistically significant effect on the likelihood of irrigating fields by 12.2% and using short‐duration seeds by 26.9%. Furthermore, there was a strong correlation between the different coping strategies, confirming the complementarity hypothesis. These findings imply that strengthening agricultural research and extension services, including farmer access to information, education, and training, is critical to the development of an effective climate change adaptation process.

Socioeconomic Factors Affecting Young Widows' Participation in Small-Scale Farming Activities in Mbeere South, Kenya

This study investigates the socioeconomic factors influencing young widows' participation in small-scale farming activities in Mbeere South, Kenya, using a qualitative research design. The paper explores the role of cultural, economic, and gender-related factors in shaping widows' involvement in agriculture, guided by frameworks such as the Gender and Development (GAD) Theory, Social Movement Theory (SMT), and Participation Theory. Document analysis was the primary method for data collection, drawing on academic studies, government reports, and NGO documents. The data were analyzed qualitatively through systematic coding and categorization to identify key themes related to widows' challenges and opportunities in farming. The sampling process was purposive, selecting documents that provided relevant insights into the socio-economic dynamics affecting widows. Sources included government agencies, NGOs working with widows, and academic studies focused on rural development and widow empowerment. The findings show that cultural barriers, such as patriarchal gender roles, inheritance laws, and social stigma, significantly hinder widows' involvement in farming. However, education plays a crucial role in empowering widows; those with higher education are more likely to adopt modern farming techniques, access financial resources, and engage in community initiatives. The study concludes that both cultural practices and education levels are critical determinants of young widows' participation in small-scale farming. The study recommends enhancing educational opportunities, expanding agricultural extension services, and implementing legal reforms to secure land rights and reduce cultural stigma, thereby improving widows' economic security and boosting their participation in farming.

Investigating the Influence of Agricultural Extension Service Providers (AESPS) on Building Inclusive Food Systems Through Underutilised Indigenous Foods Education: A Case Study

Investigating the Influence of Agricultural Extension Service Providers (AESPS) on Building Inclusive Food Systems Through Underutilised Indigenous Foods Education: A Case Study

The Impact of Farmland Transfer on Urban–Rural Integration: Causal Inference Based on Double Machine Learning

Urban–rural fragmentation represents a significant challenge encountered by nations globally, particularly in both developing and developed contexts, during the modernisation process. This study examines the effects of rural land system reform on facilitating integrated development between urban and rural areas. The analysis of the impact of the 2010 liberalisation of the land transfer policy employs a dual machine learning model, utilising provincial-level data from China spanning 2005 to 2022, to address the limitations of traditional causal inference models while ensuring estimation accuracy. The findings indicate that the reform of the rural land system significantly enhances integrated urban–rural development, particularly in demographic, economic, and ecological dimensions. The mechanisms encompass the facilitation of extensive land and agricultural service operations, the development of new business entities, the migration of rural labour, and the enhancement of agricultural capital. Furthermore, notable disparities exist in the effects of reforms across various regions, particularly concerning urban–rural integration development and land transfer levels. The policy effects of land transfer exhibit a marginally diminishing trend. The influence of land transfer on urban–rural integration varies with economic development levels, demonstrating a nonlinear relationship, with the most pronounced effects observed in regions with moderate economic development. Additionally, the policy effects of land transfer differ based on geographic location. The impact of land transfer policies varies across geographic regions, with the central region exhibiting the most significant effect, followed by the north-eastern region, the western region, and the eastern region, which shows the least effect. This study provides a reference for advancing the reform of the marketisation of land factors, improving the efficiency of land resource allocation, and regionally and in multiple layers advancing the reform of the rural land system.

A comparative study of agricultural education and extension practices in the US and India: Implications for sustainable farming

This comparative case study investigates agricultural education and extension practices in the United States (US) and India, focusing on experiential learning, extension services, public-private partnerships, bridging research and practice, and sustainable farming practices. Results show that Indian agricultural education practices demonstrate higher student engagement, broader extension service reach, and more impactful public-private partnerships compared to the US. Specifically, experiential learning programs in India led to higher student engagement and career interest, while extension services provided by Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) in India showed greater effectiveness and rural reach. Public-private partnerships, notably initiatives like Agricultural Technology Management Agency (ATMA) in India, exhibited higher perceived impact and resource mobilization. Moreover, successful strategies identified in India for bridging research and practice have implications for enhancing agricultural productivity and sustainability globally. The study underscores the importance of experiential learning, effective extension services, and collaborative partnerships in promoting sustainable farming practices.

Institutional services towards climate action: A case of climate change adaptation of agro-pastoralists in the drylands of Nigeria

ABSTRACT The agro-pastoral sector is highly vulnerable to climate change. Animal growth and milk production are affected by a reduced availability and quality of fodder and forage. Water shortages for livestock also pose a significant threat to the sector’s sustainability. To adapt, farmers depend on supportive environments that recognise the crucial role of institutional services in promoting climate action. This study analysed the effect of access to institutional services on climate change adaptation strategies of agro-pastoralists in the dry zone of Nigeria. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire to elicit information from 360 agro-pastoralist farmers, and a multivariate probit regression model was used for the analysis. The results revealed that crop residue-hay conservation, irrigation, and destocking adaptations were positively influenced by extension services, climate change, and livestock-related information. Destocking is negatively influenced by access to credit, climate change, and livestock-related information. Dissemination of climate change information, provision of credit, and construction of water-efficient irrigation facilities are essential to support agro-pastoralists in adapting to climate challenges. Appropriate institutional services from governmental and non-governmental actors through site-specific support and the creation of an enabling environment will enable agro-pastoralists to adopt water-efficient irrigation and improved pasture preservation practices that will make the sector more resilient to the changing environment.

Impact of postharvest handling technologies on income of tomato (Solanum Lycopersicum L.) smallholder farmers in Mvomero, Morogoro, Tanzania

This study investigates how smallholder tomato farmers in Mvomero District, Tanzania, utilize postharvest handling technologies (PHTs) and analyzes the factors influencing their adoption. We also assess the impact of PHTs on farmer income. Using a cross-sectional survey of 201 farmers, the study finds that a variety of PHTs are used, including lower-energy cool storage, Coolbot™ units, zero-energy cool chambers, and improved containers. Probit and ordinary least squares models reveal that factors such as farmer age, male gender, access to specific PHTs (Coolbot™, zero-energy chambers, improved containers), extension services, credit access, and shade use all significantly influence the adoption of PHTs. The study suggests that policymakers should design interventions considering different income levels. Strengthening extension services by increasing the number of workers and providing them with adequate resources is crucial to promote PHT adoption among tomato farmers, ultimately leading to increased income.