Effects of Integrated Soil Fertility Management Technologies on the Productivity of Sorghum in the Drier Parts of Upper Eastern Kenya

It is recognised that smallholder farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa significantly depend on land for their livelihoods. Nevertheless, these livelihoods are constrained by inherent low soil fertility. Over a long time, researchers and farmers have battled to arrest soil fertility degradation. Over the last decade, this battle has resulted in the development of integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) technologies. Between 2001 and 2004, Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility (TSBF) researchers and local small-holder farmers in western Kenya have been adapting these technologies to local circumstances under the community-based initiative called Strengthening Folk Ecology (FE). This initiative involved participatory demonstration-trials and dialogue as principal methods in the learning and adaptation process. Follow up studies have been undertaken to identify successful cases of this process. Initial results show that although such cases are few and far between, they are promising and benefits need to be scaled up for wider use by farmers in areas beyond the FE sites. Nevertheless, scaling ISFM technologies is complicated. ISFM technologies are knowledge intensive and their adaptations and applications are diverse. This paper provides insights into this problem by discussing selected ISFM technologies with regard to their inherent scalability

Agriculture sector remains to be the engine of economic growth for Malawi as it contributes over 40% to gross domestic product of which over 70% is generated by the smallholder sector; 90% of export earnings, provides employment to over 85% of the country’s population and income source for over 60% of the rural poor. Literature search has indicated that a lot of research work done on integrated soil fertility management and several technologies generated. Yet decline in soil productive capacity stemming from several types of soil degradation such as chemical (acidification, fertility decline/nutrient depletion) has been country’s growing concern in limiting crop production. Most degraded soils in Malawi have low nutrient holding capacity, pH below 5.5, poor infiltration and moisture retention qualities with little organic matter and severe nutrients depletion. Sulphur for instance, is universally deficient whereas K has deficiency of about 20% in many parts of the Northern and Central Regions. Integrated soil fertility management technologies such as combined use of organic and inorganic fertilizers are vital in improving and sustaining crop production. However, most smallholder farmers have not opted for some of these technologies and consequently are experiencing poor and decreasing crop yields. Recently, several deficient nutrients not commonly known to farmers (Zinc, Calcium and Magnesium) besides nitrogen and phosphorus have been found to be limiting economic crop yields. Proper knowledge and enhanced use of integrated soil fertility management technologies are vital and likely to boost economic crop productivity in Malawi

Climate change manifestations and population pressure are some of the most critical challenges that affect agricultural productivity. Integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) technologies are among the agricultural innovations that have been developed to address declining crop productivity. These technologies have been promoted across diverse areas including marginal agro‐ecological zones. Despite the nobility and versatility of ISFM technologies, their adoption is still low particularly across Kenya landscapes. Consequently, there is limited knowledge explaining the adoption of these technologies especially in the dry areas. This study therefore, applied Cragg's Double Hurdle model to determine the factors affecting adoption and adoption intensity of ISFM technologies among farmers in Upper Eastern Kenya, who mainly grow sorghum both as a food and a cash crop. The results revealed that gender, dependants, farming goal for subsistence purpose ( p < .01), decision on information use, farm size, extension services, research awareness, ISFM awareness and ISFM access, significantly affected household decision on adoption of ISFM technologies. On the other hand, gender of household head, farm size, main source of agricultural information and formal agricultural training had significant influence on adoption intensity of ISFM technologies. There is a thus a crucial need for integration of determinants surrounding adoption and adoption intensity of ISFM technologies in policy making and planning processes to enhance sorghum crop productivity in marginal Upper Eastern areas of the country.

Determinants of integrated soil fertility management technologies adoption by smallholder farmers in the Chinyanja Triangle of Southern Africa

Farm input subsidies and integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) technologies are popular policy interventions in sub‐Saharan Africa, often with the stated goals of increasing crop yields and incomes while reducing hunger and poverty. However, little is known about the combined adoption effects of input subsidies and ISFM technologies on farm productivity and household nutrition in developing countries. Using a decade of nationally representative panel data from Malawi, we analyse joint adoption effects of input subsidies and ISFM technologies on smallholder household welfare. We use multivariate probit, dynamic random effects probit, and multinomial endogenous treatment effects models to account for selection bias and endogeneity originating from both observed and unobserved heterogeneity. We find that participation in a farm input subsidy programme is strongly associated with a 15–29 percentage point increase in the probabilities of adoption of three ISFM technologies: conservation agriculture, soil and water conservation, and organic fertiliser. Furthermore, we find that the joint use of input subsidies and ISFM technologies increased crop income and micronutrient consumption by at least 12%. Our findings suggest that the joint use of input subsidies and ISFM technologies are among potential strategies to address low productivity and nutritional insecurity through improvements in soil health.

The main objective of this study was to identify and analyse determinants that influence adoption and productivity effects of Integrated Soil Fertility Management (ISFM) technologies in maize-based farming systems in Central Malawi. Data used in the analysis were collected from 200 randomly selected households from Mkanakhoti Extension Planning Area in Kasungu District. A multivariate probit model was used to analyse farmers multiple and joint adoption decisions while the Poisson regression model was used to analyse factors influencing the extent of adoption of ISFM technologies. An endogenous switching regression model was used to estimate the effect of adoption of ISFM technologies on maize productivity whilst accounting for unobservable selection bias. The results show that adoption of some components of ISFM technology package are substitutable while others are complimentary in nature. Significant factors for both adoption and sustainability by smallholders include access to legume seed, access to extension, secure land tenure, group membership and landholding size. For instance, access to extension was positive and significantly correlated with adoption of inorganic fertilizer and maize-legume intercropping while secure land tenure positively and significantly influenced adoption of legume-maize rotation system. Access to market, access to legume seed, and frequency of extension contacts, and household assets, all had positive and significant effect on both adoption and extent of adoption of ISFM technologies. Further, results also indicate that adoption of ISFM technologies had a positive and significant effect on maize yields with 10.52% increase from average among the ISFM adopters while non adopters would have increased their maize yield by16.2% had they adopted the ISFM technologies. The policy implications of the study findings are as follows: (i) Increasing farmers’ access to improved legume seed at affordable prices is critical for both adoption and upscaling of ISFM technologies. (ii) ISFM technology package in maize-based cropping systems that include use of inorganic fertilizer should be promoted together with complementary interventions such as maize-legume intercropping and improved seed. (iii) The need for policies to foster collective action where extension messages that emphasize the complementarities in adoption of ISFM technologies should emphasized. (iv) Promoting access to output markets for grain legumes such as pigeon peas is crucial to incentivise adoption of legume integration in maize-based farming system, and (v) Intensification of ISFM technologies should focus on those farmers with secure land tenure and boost female farmers access to productive resources.

The agro-climatic conditions in western Kenya present the region as a food surplus area yet people are still reliant on food imports, with the region registering high poverty levels. Depletion of soil fertility and the resulting decline in agricultural productivity in Mbale division has led to many attempts to develop and popularize Integrated Soil Fertility Management (ISFM) technologies that could restore soil fertility. These technologies bridge the gap between high external inputs and extreme forms of traditional low external input agriculture. Some of the ISFM components used by farmers are organic and inorganic inputs and improved seeds. However, the adoption of these technologies is low. The study aimed to examine the factors that influence the adoption of ISFM technologies by smallholder farmers in Mbale division, Kenya. The study was conducted in 9 sub-locations in Mbale division. Purposive sampling was used in selecting the 80 farmers to get the data based on a farm-household survey. Self-administered questionnaires were used to collect data on the determinants of the adoption of ISFM technologies from the sampled farmers in the study area. The study sought to answer the research question: What factors influence the uptake of ISFM technologies by farmers in Mbale division? The hypothesis tested was that the adoption of ISFM technologies is not influenced by age, education, extension services, labour, off-farm income and farm size. Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics. Cross tabulation was used for examining the relationship between categorical (nominal or ordinal) variables, and the bivariate correlations procedure was used to compute the pair wise associations between scale or ordinal variables. Probit regression was used to predict the socio-economic factors influencing the adoption of ISFM technologies among smallholder farmers. Results of the study indicated that education of household head, membership in social groups, age of the household head, off-farm income and farm size were the variables that significantly influenced the adoption of ISFM technologies. The findings show that there is need for a more pro-poor focused approach to achieve sustainable soil fertility management among smallholder farmers. The findings will help farmers, extension officers, researchers and donors in identifying region-specific entry points that can help in developing innovative ISFM technologies. Keywords: Soil fertility, adoption, smallholder farmer, integrated soil fertility management

This paper sought to address the following key research question: what drives some smallholder farmers to adopt integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) practices in a changing climate while others drop out? Data used in this study were collected from 200 farming households during the 2015/2016 agricultural season in Kasungu District of Central Malawi. This paper applied multivariate probit and bivariate probit model, respectively, to analyse the joint adoption and disadoption decisions regarding ISFM technologies and/or practices. Significant factors for both adoption and continued use of ISFM practices include access to legume seed, access to extension, secure land tenure, group membership and landholding size. Interestingly, the same factors discourage disadoption of ISFM practices. For instance, access to legume seed and access to extension discourage disadoption of maize-legume intercropping and rotation, while larger landholding sizes encourage adoption of legume-maize rotation. In addition, the study found that female farmers were more likely to continue the practice of maize-legume intercropping. We therefore recommend that ISFM technology packages that include the use of inorganic fertilizer should go along with other complementary interventions such as maize-legume intercropping and rotation. In addition, efforts in the promotion and scaling up of ISFM practices should focus on those households with secure land tenure rights, encourage access to extension and should place emphasis on the complementarities that exist in the adoption of decisions regarding ISFM technologies in maize-based farming systems.

Use of Integrated Soil Fertility Management Technologies in Malawi: Impact of Dry Spells Exposure

Participatory action research (PAR) as an entry point for supporting climate change adaptation by smallholder farmers in Africa

Declining soil fertility and productivity is a critical problem facing smallholder farmers in the central highlands of Kenya. A study to improve soil fertility and farm productivity within the smallholder farming systems in the area was carried out from 2003 to 2006. The specific objectives were to identify farming system constraints, evaluate and disseminate potential integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) interventions using participatory approaches, assess achievements and impacts, and document learning experiences emanating from the methodologies used. The participatory approaches used were Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), mother–baby approach (with emphasis on demonstration), farmer groups, stakeholders planning meetings, village training workshops, cross-site visits and participatory monitoring and evaluation. The core problems identified were low crop and fodder yields that were caused by erratic rainfall, soil erosion, low soil fertility and small land sizes. There was high participation of farmers in all the partnership activities, and this possibly contributed to the high uptake of the technologies for testing by farmers whereby after only 2 years a total of 970 households were testing the new technologies. Maize yields at the farm level increased by more than 150% following use of the new ISFM interventions and about half of the farmers within the groups planted close to 500 trees propagated in the group nurseries. We recommend that pathways to reach more farmers should concentrate on demonstrations, farmer training grounds, field days and farmer groups and that a policy framework should be put in place to impart appropriate skills in ISFM to the extension workers.

Aims: Even though screening of videos to create awareness about agricultural technologies may not be a novelty, adaptation of a motor tricycle for that purpose is an innovation. The study therefore, sought to identify the awareness creation technique that is most preferred by farmers in the Northern Region of Ghana, estimate the per unit cost of creating awareness using various techniques and as well, examine the socio-economic factors that are likely to influence farmers’ decision to patronize Integrated Soil Fertility Management (ISFM) video shows as an awareness creation technique. Study Design: Primary data collected through farmer interviews formed the basis for analysis in this study. Qualitative and quantitative data generated from the questionnaire administration included types and quality of awareness creation techniques utilized by farmers, farmers socioeconomic characteristics among others. Place and Duration of Study: The study was conducted in eight districts in the Northern Original Research Article American Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 4(11): , 2014 1289 Region of Ghana in September 2013. The eight districts fall naturally (based on culture) into two ethnic groups, which are the Dagombas and Gonjas. The groups (Dagbon and Gonja Land) formed two strata from which respondents were sampled for the study. Methodology: A multi stage sampling technique was used to select 322 farmers who were interviewed. Data collected and observations made were subjected to descriptive and logit statistical analysis as well as Friedman test in order to generate results for discussion. Results: The Friedman test indicates that on-farm demonstration (1.49) was unanimously ranked by the respondents as their most preferred method of receiving ISFM information. On-stage drama (3.0) and radio (3.0) were ranked as the least preferred methods of receiving information on ISFM technologies in Dagbon and Gonja Land respectively. Video show (2.81) was ranked by the respondents as the third most preferred method of receiving information on ISFM technologies. Use of video show and on-farm demonstration were respectively found to be the least and most expensive methods of disseminating ISFM technologies to farmers. Whereas it costs about 1 Ghana cedi (GH¢1.09) to screen an ISFM video to a farmer, it costs about thirty times (GH¢31.10) more to expose a farmer to ISFM by establishing and managing an on-farm demonstration. Results of the logit analysis indicates that being male (0.09), belonging to a relatively large household (0.02), not having access to extension (0.20) or being relatively young (0.01) are factors that are likely to positively influence farmers’ decision to patronize ISFM video shows. Conclusion and Recommendation: The study concludes that agricultural technology interventions should employ either on-farm demonstrations or video shows, especially when constrained to adopt only a single awareness creation technique. Projects that are cash constrained should opt for video shows by specifically relying on motor tricycle video vans in order to reduce cost. For maximum impact, female farmers, members of relatively small households and elderly farmers should be targeted. Future studies should focus on the effectiveness of different awareness creation techniques and their interactive effects.

<p><strong>Background:</strong> Soil fertility degradation remains the major biophysical cause of declining <em>per capita</em> crop production on smallholder farmers in Central Kenya highlands. The study was carried out for 3 consecutive seasons in Embu County classified as semi-arid lands in Kenya. <strong>Objectives:</strong> To determine the effect of Soil Water Harvesting (SWH), cropping systems and Integrated Soil Fertility Management technologies on sorghum and cowpea production in Mbeere South Sub-County, Kenya. <strong>Methodology:</strong> The treatments were arranged in a factorial structure with 3 levels of SWH, 2 cropping systems and 6 soil fertility management options laid out in a partially balanced incomplete block design. The SWC was measured after 2 weeks after planting interval stages in the whole season. Data were analyzed by ANOVA and significant means separated using Least Significant Difference (LSD) at 95% Confidence Interval. <strong>Results:</strong> There was a two way interactions effect between SWH*Fertility management options on sorghum grain yields was significant (<em>p</em>=0.0027, <em>p</em>=0.0008 and<em> p</em>=0.0057) during long rains (LR) of 2011 and 2012, and short rains (SR) of 2011, respectively. Additionally, SWH methods significantly affected sorghum grain yields in a similar trend (<em>p</em>=0.002, <em>p</em>=0.0005 and<em> p</em>=0.0003) in their respective seasons. In SR 2011 and LR 2012, soil fertility options also produced significant effects (<em>p</em>=0.0047 and <em>p</em>=0.0024) on cowpea grain yields, respectively. The results further indicated that there were significant higher SWC measurements at initial stages of 2 WAP, 4 WAP and 6 WAP intervals as compared to the late stages of the season. However, sole cropping systems had significantly more SWC measurement than those in intercropping systems in both seasons. <strong>Implications:</strong> Manure added treatments positively affected SWC conservation and this could be as a result of increased soil organic carbon which improved soil fertility. The available SWC played a great role in drought effect mitigation by availing moisture to sorghum and cowpea productivity especially when prolonged dry spells coincide with crop’s sensitive phenological growing stages. <strong>Conclusions:</strong> Water harvesting methods cropping systems and soil fertility management options had positive influence on soil moisture conservation and crop yields production in Central Kenya Highland. </p>

Uptake of integrated soil fertility management technologies in heterogeneous smallholder farms in sub-humid tropics

Sub-Saharan African smallholder farmers face two challenges: low production and restricted funding for nutrient inputs. By combining the use of enhanced germplasm, prudent fertiliser use, and organic matter management tailored to the local farming conditions, integrated soil fertility management seeks to increase productivity. This study set out to evaluate determinants for the adoption of integrated soil fertility management technologies by smallholder farmers in Namtumbo district, Tanzania. The design of the study was cross-sectional. Using the random sampling technique, 223 respondents were selected. The study utilised IBM SPSS to analyse both descriptive and inferential statistics. The findings show that almost all farmers adopted the ISFM initiative’s supported technologies, including better-quality seed strains, legume-maize rotation, and maize-legume intercropping. Findings on the determinants for the adoption ISFM knowledge were depicted by a binary logistic regression model whereby variables included in the model were good (Nagelkerke R2 = 0.81) predictors of determinants for adoption of ISFM technologies by farmers. Soil fertility, climatic conditions, education, participation in groups, access to extension services, cost of input and credit access had substantial (p< 0.05) influences on the probability of adoption of ISFM technology by a farmer. The inference of this discovery is that the adoption of ISFM technologies is affected by various factors. In order to guarantee accurate agricultural information on ISFM technologies and boost productivity, the study recommends increasing the number of extension staff and raising awareness among farmers about the importance of using extension staff. Adoption of ISFM procedures is also significantly influenced by the availability of better seed varieties. For this reason, smallholder farmers ought to have easier access to more inexpensive, better seed varieties. Furthermore, there should be a strong emphasis on intercropping maize and legumes as well as rotating legumes with maize.