Consumer Exposure Research Articles

Mercury (Hg) concentration in fish commercialized in the São Luís fish market (MA) and potential exposure of consumers

Mercury (Hg) concentration in fish commercialized in the São Luís fish market (MA) and potential exposure of consumers

Modeling of local and systemic exposure to metals and metalloids after inhalation exposure: Recommended update to the USEPA metals framework.

The USEPA issued the "Framework for Metal Risk Assessment" in 2007, recognizing that human and environmental exposure to metals and metalloids (MMEs) poses challenges risk assessment. Inhalation of aerosols containing MMEs is a primary pathway for exposure in the occupational setting, for consumer exposure, and to general population exposure associated with point-source emissions or ambient sources. The impacts of inhalation can be at the point of deposition (local exposure) or may manifest after uptake into the body (systemic exposure). Both local and systemic exposure can vary with factors that determine the regional deposition of MME-containing aerosols. Aerosol characteristics such as particle size combine with species-specific characteristics of airway morphology and lung function to modulate the deposition and clearance of MME particulates. In contrast to oral exposure, often monitored by measuring MME levels in blood or urine, inhalation exposure can produce local pulmonary impacts in the absence of significant systemic distribution. Exposure assessment for nutritionally essential MMEs can be further complicated by homeostatic controls that regulate systemic MME levels. Predictions of local exposure can be facilitated by computer models that estimate regional patterns of aerosol deposition, permitting calculation of exposure intensity in different regions of the respiratory tract. The utility of deposition modeling has been demonstrated in assessments of nutritionally essential MMEs regulated by homeostatic controls and in the comparison of results from inhalation studies in experimental animals. This facilitates extrapolation from animal data to humans and comparisons of exposures possessing mechanistic linkages to pulmonary toxicity and carcinogenesis. Pulmonary deposition models have significantly advanced and have been applied by USEPA in evaluations of particulate matter. However, regional deposition modeling has yet to be incorporated into the general guidance offered by the agency for evaluating inhalation exposure. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2024;20:952-964. © 2023 The Authors. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of Society of Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry (SETAC).

Residue analysis and dietary risk assessment of abamectin in fresh corn, bitter melon, and Fritillaria.

To clarify the residue behavior and possible dietary risk of abamectin in fresh corn, bitter melon, and Fritillaria, a method was developed for the simultaneous determination of abamectin residues in fresh corn, bitter melon, and Fritillaria by QuEChERS (quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, safe) ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The mean recovery of abamectin in fresh corn, bitter melon, and Fritillaria was 86.48%-107.80%, and the relative standard deviation was 2.07%-10.12%. The detection rates of abamectin residues in fresh corn, bitter melon, and Fritillaria were 62.50%, 87.50%, and 80.00%, respectively. The residues of abamectin in fresh corn, bitter melon, and Fritillaria were not more than 0.020, 0.019, and 0.087 mg/kg, respectively. Based on these results, dietary risk assessment showed that the risk content of abamectin residues in long- and short-term dietary exposure for Chinese consumers was 61.57% and 0.41%-1.11%, respectively, indicating that abamectin in fresh corn, bitter melon, and Fritillaria in the market would not pose a significant risk to consumers.

Microplastic contamination in edible marine fishes from the upper Gulf of Thailand

Seafood consumption is a major source of microplastic exposure for humans. Here, we demonstrated microplastic contamination in marine food fishes from the upper Gulf of Thailand. Microplastics were found in gastrointestinal tracts of 46.9 % of fishes sampled, with a mean concentration of 1.6 ± 0.5 pieces per fish or 0.04 ± 0.01 pieces/g of fish tissue. Demersal fishes had higher contamination rates than pelagic fishes. Fibrous-type and blue-colored materials were the most abundant microplastics, while the most common polymers were polyester and polyethylene. No associations between microplastics and histopathological changes were detected. Estimated daily microplastic exposure for human marine fish consumers was 0.03 to 0.1 pieces per person. Although we expect a low risk of microplastic contamination in fish muscle because of very low calculated transfer rates, we recommend continuing surveillance, including evaluations of contamination in the food chain to ensure future seafood safety in this region.

Setting of an import tolerance for lambda-cyhalothrin in avocados.

In accordance with Article 6 of Regulation (EC) No 396/2005, the applicant Syngenta Crop Protection AG submitted a request to the competent national authority in Greece to set an import tolerance for the active substance lambda-cyhalothrin in avocados. The data submitted in support of the request were found to be sufficient to derive maximum residue level (MRL) proposals for avocados. Since the general data gap related to toxicity of degradation products formed under sterilisation conditions and identified in the framework of the MRL review has not yet been addressed, a risk management decision is required as to whether it is appropriate to take over the proposed MRLs in the MRL legislation. Adequate analytical methods for enforcement are available to control the residues of lambda-cyhalothrin in the commodity under consideration at the validated limit of quantification (LOQ) of 0.01 mg/kg. Based on the risk assessment results, EFSA concluded that the short-term and long-term intake of residues resulting from the use of lambda-cyhalothrin according to the reported agricultural practice is unlikely to present a risk to consumer health. However, the consumer exposure calculation shall be considered provisional, pending the toxicological assessment of the compounds formed under sterilisation conditions.

Occurrence and Dietary Exposure of 3-MCPD Esters and Glycidyl Esters in Domestically and Commercially Prepared Food in Singapore.

This study investigated the prevalence and occurrence of 3-monochloropropanediol esters (3-MCPDEs) and glycidyl esters (GEs) in domestically and commercially prepared food in Singapore and assessed the total dietary exposure for the Singaporean population. Minimal impact on the formation of 3-MCPDEs and GEs was observed from the domestic cooking methods commonly practiced in Singapore such as deep frying and stir frying. The estimated total dietary exposure to 3-MCPDEs for the Singaporean population (aged 15 to 92) was 0.982 µg/kg bw/day for general consumers and 2.212 µg/kg bw/day for high consumers (95th percentile), which accounted for 49.1% and 110.6% of the tolerable dietary intake (TDI) at 2 µg/kg bw/day by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). The calculated margins of exposure (MOE) for GEs based on the dietary exposure for general consumers at 0.882 µg/kg bw/day and 2.209 µg/kg bw/day for high consumers were below 10,000, indicating a potential health concern. Our study showed that the occurrence of 3-MCPDEs and GEs varied among vegetable oils, and domestic cooking methods did not significantly impact the levels of 3-MCPDEs and GEs in prepared food. The critical factor influencing the prevalence and occurrence of 3-MCPDEs and GEs was the choice of oil used for cooking, which absorbed into the cooked food. It is essential to encourage the food industry to continue its innovation on mitigation measures to control and reduce 3-MCPDEs and GEs in vegetable oil production. Consumers are advised to make informed choices on food consumption and cooking oil for food preparation to reduce their exposure to 3-MCPDEs and GEs.

Chemical risk assessment of conventionally and organically grown tomatoes in Côte d'Ivoire

Background: The use of fertilizers in agriculture can be a source of contamination of fruits and vegetables. Aims: This study was to assess the level of contamination of tomatoes by heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Hg, and As), in order to assess the risks of exposure of consumers of tomatoes in Côte d'Ivoire. Material and Methods: More specifically, the assessment focused on the contamination by heavy metals used intensively by producers for the fertilization of vegetable crops. Four heavy metals (mercury, lead, cadmium and arsenic) were tested in tomato samples from both types of agriculture. Results: The average level of mercury in organic tomatoes (0.08290 ± 0.03 mg/kg) and in conventional tomatoes (0.1564 ± 0.1 mg/kg) exceeded the maximum limit (EC N 1881/2006). However, in organic tomatoes, only mercury level exceeded the required standard, the other heavy metals being present in trace amounts. The content of these other metals in the organic tomatoes exceeded the standard. However, the ratio (hazard quotient) of the weekly heavy metal intake to the provisional tolerable weekly intake for all heavy metals was less than one (1). Conclusion: Consumption of tomatoes from the areas in this study did not pose a health risk to the consumer. Keywords: Organic agriculture, conventional agriculture, heavy metals, dietary exposure.

Pengaruh Aktivitas Pemasaran Media Sosial Terhadap Ekuitas Merek dan Loyalitas Merek Pada Konsumen Muslim Marketplace Lazada

This research aims to determine the influence of Social Media Marketing Activities on Brand Equity and Brand Loyalty among Lazada Marketplace ConsumersTo gain a more comprehensive understanding of social media marketing from brands, it is important to examine the influence of social media marketing activities on brand building in various product and service contexts.The results of the analysis show that social media marketing activities have a significant effect on brand awareness, brand image and brand loyalty. These results are in accordance with the results of research conducted by Ismail, (2017), Seo&Park (2018), Bilgin (2018), and Malarvizhi, et al. (2022). The SOR theory underlies this research where every process of social media's effects on individuals begins with attention to several media messages. This shows that the public receives a stimulus, namely consumer exposure to a brand's social media which then has an influence on the public and produces a response including trust, purchase commitment and loyalty to a brand.

In vivo mutagenicity assessment of orally treated tert-butyl hydroperoxide in the liver and glandular stomach of MutaMouse

Backgroundtert-Butyl hydroperoxide (TBHP; CAS 75–91-2), a hydroperoxide, is mainly used as a polymerization initiator to produce polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, and unsaturated polyester. It is a high-production chemical, widely used in industrial countries, including Japan. TBHP is also used as an additive for the manufacturing of food utensils, containers, and packaging (UCP). Therefore, there could be consumer exposure through oral intake of TBHP eluted from UCPs. TBHP was investigated in various in vitro and in vivo genotoxicity assays. In Ames tests, some positive results were reported with and/or without metabolic activation. As for the mouse lymphoma assay, the positive result was reported, regardless of the presence or absence of metabolic activation enzymes. The results of some chromosomal aberrations test and comet assay in vitro also demonstrated the genotoxic positive results. On the other hand, in in vivo tests, there are negative results in the bone marrow micronucleus test of TBHP-administered mice by single intravenous injection and the bone marrow chromosomal aberration test using rats exposed to TBHP for 5 days by inhalation. Also, about dominant lethal tests, the genotoxic positive results appeared. In contrast, there is little information about in vivo mutagenicity and no information about carcinogenicity by oral exposure.ResultsWe conducted in vivo gene mutation assay using MutaMice according to the OECD Guidelines for the Testing of Chemicals No. 488 to investigate in vivo mutagenicity of TBHP through oral exposure. After repeated dosing for 28 days, there were no significant differences in the mutant frequencies (MFs) of the liver and glandular stomach up to 300 mg/kg/day (close to the maximum tolerable dose (MTD)). The positive and negative controls produced the expected responses.ConclusionsThese findings show that orally administrated TBHP is not mutagenic in the mouse liver and glandular stomach under these experimental conditions.

Dietary Exposure and Risk Assessment of Beta-Agonist Residues in Commercial Beef and Pork in Taiwan.

Beta-agonists (β-agonists) in meat products in one's diet raise concerns about the possibility of foodborne illness. It may also lead to discomfort, such as headaches and occasional irregular heartbeats, which might be linked to a heightened concern for cardiovascular issues. Taiwan's high demand for meat and reliance on imported meat products from certain countries where β-agonists are permitted has raised concerns. Recent import border checks and monitoring of meat products in the market have revealed the concentration of non-compliance with β-agonist residue regulations, which is ten ppb. This study aims to analyze the concentration of β-agonist residues in meat products sold in Taiwan and assess the current levels of exposure and dietary risk for consumers. The study analyzed 1415 samples of domestically produced and imported livestock products from supermarkets, traditional markets, and bulk stores in New Taipei City between 2019 and 2023. The samples were analyzed using the method for detecting 21 β-agonists based on the Taiwan Food and Drug Administration's specifications. Estimated daily intake (EDI) of β-agonists for different age groups and the target hazard quotient (THQ) were used to assess dietary exposure and risk. The results showed that all 1415 samples were compliant with regulations. Among them, 43 beef samples showed residues of ractopamine originating from the United States, with residue concentrations ranging from 1 to 10 μg/kg and an average residue concentration of 3.3 ± 1.9 μg/kg. Under average consumption, the highest EDI for the exposed population was observed in the 6-12 age group, with values of 0.1469 μg/kg/day, 0.0734 μg/kg/day, and 0.0242 μg/kg/day for the three residue concentrations (maximum detected residue, maximum allowable residue, and average detected residue, respectively). The THQs for ractopamine in imported beef samples were all less than 1, indicating no health hazards at the current intake levels of each age group and the residue concentrations in commercially available beef. Despite the findings, traders need to acknowledge regulatory variations between Taiwan and exporting countries when importing meat products. Traders should provide inspection reports to monitor β-agonist residue levels in imports or explore sourcing beef from countries with β-agonist bans.

Evaluation of the thermal stability and transfer rate of pyrrolizidine alkaloids during the brewing of herbal infusions contaminated with Echium vulgare and Senecio vulgaris weeds

Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) are currently in the spotlight of food safety due to the potential health risk that their intake may entail for consumers. Among the wide variety of food products likely to be contaminated with PAs, teas and herbal teas stand out because of their cross-contamination with weeds from PA-producing plants. Accordingly, this work simulates the cross-contamination of chamomile tea samples with weeds of Senecio vulgaris and Echium vulgare to evaluate the effect of brewing on the PA content at different temperature (100 and 75 °C) and time (5 and 10 min) conditions. The results of the thermal degradation study revealed PAs are quite stable compounds under the conditions assayed, being the initial PA concentration the variable that strongly affected the thermal stability of these compounds, rather than the brewing temperature and time. On the other hand, it was confirmed that not all PAs are effectively transferred from the dry material to the infusion during the brewing process, leading to overall transfer rates between 13 ± 1 to 87 ± 10%. Also, it was observed that the extraction efficiency may be influenced by the type of matrix, since transfer rates were lower when the PA migration came from Echium vulgare than from Senecio vulgaris. Moreover, it was confirmed that the real content of PAs in a cup of tea can be overestimated in 2–7 times if their transfer rate is not considered during the brewing process, highlighting the importance of analyzing the infusion samples instead of the dry tea samples to correctly assess the risk exposure of consumers to these contaminants.

Assessment of Toxic Element Contamination in Honey, Milk, and Eggs from Algiers (Algeria) Using Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS): Exploring Health Implications of Pollution.

Consumption of foods such as milk, honey, and eggs contaminated with toxic elements above established norms poses a health risk to the population. This study explores the potential of products from beehives, poultry, and dairy as indicators of environmental pollution caused by toxic substances (Pb, Cd, Hg), seeks contamination sources, evaluates the exposure level, and assesses health risks. Through the analysis of samples from three distinct regions in Algiers, including 30 milk, 30 honey, and 30 poultry egg samples, the study assesses levels of toxic elements (lead, cadmium, and mercury) using ICP-MS and analyzes consumer exposure risk. The analysis of honey reveals levels of Pb (0.282 μg/g) > Cd (0.161 μg/g) > Hg (0.017 μg/g), the analysis of eggs shows levels of Pb (0.399 μg/g) > Cd (0.239 μg/g) > Hg (0.027 μg/g), and the results in milk show levels of Cd (0.250 μg/g) > Pb (0.131 μg/g) > Hg (0.019 μg/g). The risk analysis indicates a risk associated with milk consumption for both adults and children, whereas for honey and eggs, the risk is limited to children only in polluted areas. Future research should expand to other toxic elements in different food matrices in both northern and southern Algeria to evaluate the health risk for African and European consumers.

Margin of exposure to free formaldehyde in personal care products containing formaldehyde-donor preservatives: Evidence for consumer safety

Formaldehyde has been classified as carcinogenic to humans by International Agency for Research on Cancer and found in personal care (PC) products containing formaldehyde-donor (FD) preservatives. However, the cancer risk associated with the use of FD-containing PC products has not been well established. Our study provides the quantitative cancer risk assessment of formaldehyde in FD-containing PC products. The carbon-13 nuclear magnetic resonance (13C-NMR) spectroscopy was used in this risk assessment to provide reliable exposure information to formaldehyde in PC products and aqueous solutions containing sodium hydroxymethylglycinate. The risk assessment was conducted using the margin of exposure (MOE) approach with benchmark doses (BMDs) for 10% effect. For hemolymphoreticular neoplasias in male rats, a BMD of 28.03 mg/kg/day and a BMD lower confidence limit (BMDL) of 2.52 mg/kg/day were calculated from available long-term animal experiments. The worst-case consumer exposure to formaldehyde from FD-containing PC products was 0.007 μg/kg/day. Comparing the consumer exposure with BMDL, the resulting MOE was 360,000 for the worst-case scenario. The consumer exposure to formaldehyde (0.007 μg/kg/day) from using FD-containing PC products represents less than 1.0 × 10−6 % of background level endogenous formaldehyde (878–1310 mg/kg/day). The cancer risk from formaldehyde to consumers using FD-containing PC products is negligible.

SAT433 Improving The Risk Assessment Procedures For Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals Affecting Thyroid Homeostasis: A Scoping Study

Abstract Disclosure: C. La Motta: None. This project aims at improving the risk assessment procedure currently adopted for the endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), focusing in particular on those contained in food contact materials and articles and affecting thyroid homeostasis. EDCs generally display a complex toxicity profile, thus making toxicological evaluation and health risk assessment difficult to achieve. The current standardized methods are rather insufficient to identify and test their complex toxicity, and the application of traditional risk assessment principles may be problematic for this kind of substances. This issue is even more crucial when ECDs are part of food contact materials and articles, which are commonly used by the whole population. The increasingly wider distribution of these products on the global market raised the exposure of consumers to chemical agents on constant and cumulative basis, even for persistent compounds, highlighting the urgency of governing the matter. A number of lists including chemicals exploited for the manufacture of food contact materials and articles have been drawn up by international regulators and public and private bodies. However, besides far from being harmonized, they do not provide systematic information regarding thyroid disrupting properties. Actually, the awareness of science on the thyroid safety profile of compounds intentionally used in the food planet is still limited and fragmented, thus requiring an intensive research activity to fill the existing knowledge gap. We carried out a thoroughly survey of the available databases of chemicals for food contact materials and articles, selecting sixteen EDCs characterized by a high level of uncertainty concerning the toxicological profile and/or dearth of information on human exposure data. The selected compounds should be now investigated by making use of both computational tools and in vitro and in vivo studies, to ascertain their adverse thyroid effects. The resulting outcomes will allow to achieve a reliable risk assessment for the benefit of entire population. Presentation: Saturday, June 17, 2023

Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) — Fibrous substrates

Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) have been implemented during the finishing process of textiles such as upholstery, clothing, personal protective equipment, and sports gear to provide water resistance. Currently, PFAS are still present at quantifiable levels in consumer products and food, even though many companies have started to phase out PFAS treatment with non-toxic water repellant replacements given the possible detrimental health effects suggested by current research. This paper is a detailed review that focuses on how PFAS are implemented in textile production and sources of PFAS contamination during chemical treatments. This review also addresses current legislation on PFAS emissions and trade regulations to decrease exposure of consumers due to toxicokinetics and mechanisms of action throughout the body that are still not well understood. This paper includes a literature review on possible PFAS related health conditions shown from past research and contains suggested toxicity levels, exposure routes, duration, and pathways detailed to the best of our ability.

Mycotoxin reduction and metabolite profiles of ogi produced using traditional fermentation methods

Mycotoxins are widely present in maize, a favourite staple food in sub-Saharan Africa. Food processing methods, like fermentation, have been suggested as potential ways to reduce mycotoxin contamination levels in the grain and, as a result, limit the exposure of crop consumers to the harmful effects of the toxins. The influence of four traditional fermentation processes [cold (with changed steeping liquor (CSL) and unchanged steeping liquor (USL), Fon and Goun procedures] on the mycotoxin reduction and metabolites profile of ogi, a fermented maize product, was studied. Ultra-high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) and gas chromatography linked to high resolution time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC-HR-TOF-MS) were respectively employed for the mycotoxin and metabolite profiles analyses of the samples. Among the nine mycotoxins detected in the raw maize samples, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and fumonisin B1 (FB1) + fumonisin B2 (FB2) concentrations were found to exceed the European Union (EU) maximum limit. Both cold (containing USL and CSL) and Goun fermentation techniques were able to lower the AFB1 concentration below this threshold. The metabolomics result revealed that ogi produced using the cold (USL) and Fon fermentation processes had the highest number of most of the detected important compounds, whereas the Goun fermentation process produced the fewest compounds in total. There was no statistically significant difference in the ability of the specified natural fermentation processes to lower FB1, FB2, FB3, deoxynivalenol (DON), sterigmatocystin (STERIG), and zearalenone concentrations in maize (ZEN). In addition, the results demonstrated that the four natural fermentation processes evaluated had varying effects.

Aflatoxins and Ochratoxin A in dried fruits from Morocco: Monitoring, regulatory aspects, and exposure assessment

The present study aims to investigate the presence of Aflatoxins (AF) in 180 samples dried fruits and Ochratoxin A (OTA) in 210 samples dried fruits and grape juices collected in Morocco. Mycotoxins were analyzed by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled to fluorescence detection and immunoaffinity columns (IAC) cleanup. Contamination levels were compared with the maximum regulatory limits (MRL) recently adopted in the country, and mycotoxin exposure of adult consumers was assessed. Results showed that 13.8% of samples were contaminated with AF, with incidences of 23.3, 23.3, 20, 13.8, and 3.3%, in raisins, figs, nuts, peanuts and pistachio, respectively. There were 12 samples (6.6%) that exceeded the MRL of 2–12 ng/g set for aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). While OTA was detected in 17.1% of samples, with incidences of 3.3, 3.3, 30, 30, and 53.3% in walnuts, pistachios, peanuts, raisins and figs, respectively, and a maximum value of 99.1 in dried raisins, that exceeded the MRL (10 ng/g) set for OTA. The co-occurrence of OTA and AF was observed in 4.7% of total samples. Dietary intake showed that the OTA exposure level was lower than safety guidelines set by The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) at 100 ng/kg b.w./week.

Assessment of Furan and Its Derivatives Intake with Home Prepared Meals and Characterization of Associated Risk for Polish Infants and Toddlers.

Furan and its derivatives are found in various heat-treated foods. Furan is classified as a possible human carcinogen. The European Union authorities recommend collecting data on the occurrence of these compounds, estimating consumer exposure, and taking measures to protect human health based on a scientific risk assessment. The aim of this study was to estimate the exposure of infants and toddlers to furan and its methyl derivatives-2-methylfuran, 3-methylfuran, and ∑2,5-dimethylfuran/2-ethylfuran-present in home-prepared foods and to characterize the associated health risks. The compounds of interest were determined using the HS-GC/MS. The risk was characterized by the calculation of the margin of exposure (MoE). Levels of furan and its derivatives in analyzed samples were in the range of <LOD ÷ 10 µg/kg and <LOD ÷ 80.3 µg/kg, respectively. The MoEs for neoplastic effects in most of the presumed scenarios indicate a risk associated with the intake of analyzed compounds in both age groups (MoE < 10,000; 331 to 6354 for 95th percentile, 3181-39,033 for median). The MoEs for non-neoplastic effects indicate a potential risk associated with the intake of 3-methylfuran and Σ2,5-dimethylfuran/2-ethylfuran for high exposure (95th percentile) only (MoE < 100; 16-47). The obtained results indicate the need for further research in this area.

International Law Enforcement Observer XI.

Aim: The presentation of foreign literature on law enforcement is a basic task of Rendészeti Figyelő. This time, however, we would like to provide students of Law Enforcement Doctoral School with direct methodological assistance in order to help them to draw from foreign language sources as effectively as possible when developing their research topics and writing their dissertations. With this commitment, the reviews of Árpád Budavári and Zsolt Lippai are given space. Both have chosen valuable foreign sources for their doctoral thesis topics.Methodology: Among the methodological innovations in the world scientific literature, this Figyelő offers fresh ideas in two areas. Gergely Hlavacska draws attention to the following: "Drug policy (drug control) ... is shifting away from traditional criminal justice solutions towards harm reduction. This is reflected in the increasing number of diversionary schemes coordinated by the police as an alternative to criminalisation." Drug policy is seen as part of a law enforcement strategy, in which the decisive factor is the choice of the political forces that have gained power in government between pro-strength and pro-aid regimes. Hlavacska's review outlines a pattern in which a smart response to crime listens to the opinions of police professionals. The liquidation of illegal drug market bases is one of the most difficult areas, where really big successes are rare. The criminologists of the fight against drugs know that failures against distribution networks are not mitigated by the exposure of consumers. Police culture has plenty of experience of how justice often penalises those who are victims rather than perpetrators of drug crime. The second methodological lesson emerges in the work of Ákos Erdélyi, who points out that the militarisation of policing is not exclusively a subject of research in police or defence studies. "The process of militarisation has, by its very nature, in the vast majority of cases been examined from some police science or defence policy perspective; the authors of this study, however, are representatives of psychology..." The researchers arrived at these findings through extensive use of well-designed questionnaires.Findings: In drug strategies, the curative (medicalising) tendencies can be strengthened where police experience is matched by sufficient professional authority, which can only be put to good use by the democratic functioning of political power. The military or civilian nature of law enforcement personnel can provoke controversial reactions from the public: "The results show that the public tends to have negative attitudes towards officers wearing certain militarised attire, including in terms of approachability, confidence and morality. At the same time, public perception is that these officers are stronger, more confident and more prepared for threatening behaviour/dangerous situations." Tamás Skorka gives an example of war communication, reporting on a study that presents the inhuman world of Russian aggression against Ukraine.Value: The studies show that law enforcement authorities involved in maintaining public order and safeguarding public security require an internal and multidisciplinary assessment of their activities, which can significantly improve the professional quality of law enforcement services and enhance their social acceptance.

Estimation of smokers' exposure to mercury from combustible tobacco products, based on the approach used in food consumers’ exposure estimation

Smoking has been known to mankind for centuries, but it is only in recent decades that much attention has been paid to the harmfulness of this habit. Mercury inhalation is particularly dangerous in this respect and smoking creates extremely favorable conditions for the emission and targeted delivery of this element into the lungs. Despite this fact, a lack of a clear method for estimating the exposure of tobacco consumers to mercury was identified. This work shows justification to transfer the approach of estimating food product consumers' exposure to estimate the exposure of combustible tobacco product consumers to this element. In addition, it was noted that researchers' attention is mainly focused on cigarettes, while the tobacco market has a wide range of combustible products. Therefore, in this work, the mercury content of cigars (8.45 ± 0.18–41.02 ± 0.20 μg/kg), pipe tobaccos (8.03 ± 0.52–25.48 ± 0.50 μg/kg), bidis (14.93 ± 0.47–31.79 ± 0.26 μg/kg) and cigarette tobaccos (14.22 ± 0.71–34.5 ± 1.4 μg/kg) was analyzed. This study demonstrates that smoking can contribute significant total mercury exposure to consumers', although it is unlikely to cause mercury poisoning regardless of other exposure sources.