Explosive Phase Research Articles

Explosive First-Order Transition to Synchrony in Networked Chaotic Oscillators

Critical phenomena in complex networks, and the emergence of dynamical abrupt transitions in the macroscopic state of the system are currently a subject of the outmost interest. We report evidence of an explosive phase synchronization in networks of chaotic units. Namely, by means of both extensive simulations of networks made up of chaotic units, and validation with an experiment of electronic circuits in a star configuration, we demonstrate the existence of a first-order transition towards synchronization of the phases of the networked units. Our findings constitute the first prove of this kind of synchronization in practice, thus opening the path to its use in real-world applications.

Intraglacial volcanism in the Western Volcanic Zone, Iceland

The Western Volcanic Zone in Iceland (64.19° to 65.22° N) has the morphological characteristics of a distinct Mid-Atlantic ridge segment. This volcanic zone was mapped at a scale of 1:36.000, and 258 intraglacial monogenetic volcanoes from the Late Pleistocene (0.01–0.78 Ma) were identified and investigated. The zone is characterized by infrequent comparatively large volcanic eruptions and the overall volcanic activity appears to have been low throughout the Late Pleistocene. Tholeiitic basaltic rocks dominate in the Western Volcanic Zone with about 0.5 vol. % of intermediate and silicic rocks. The basalts divide into picrites, olivine tholeiites, and tholeiites. Three main eruptive phases can be distinguished in the intraglacial volcanoes: an effusive deep-water lava phase producing basal pillow lavas, an explosive shallow-water phase producing hyaloclastites and an effusive subaerial capping lava phase. Three evolutionary stages therefore charcterize these volcanoes; late dykes and irregular minor intrusions could be added as the fourth main stage. These intrusions are potential heat sources for short-lived hydrothermal systems and may play an important role in the final shaping of the volcanoes. Substantial parts of the hyaloclastites of each unit are proximal sedimentary deposits. The intraglacial volcanoes divide into two main morphological groups, ridge-shaped volcanoes, i.e., tindars (including pillow lava ridges) and subrectangular volcanoes, i.e., tuyas and hyaloclastite or pillow lava mounds. The volume of the tuyas is generally much larger than that of the tindars. The largest tuya, Eiriksjokull, is about 48 km3 and therefore the largest known monogenetic volcano in Iceland. Many of the large volcanoes, both tuyas and tindars, show a similar, systematic range in geochemistry. The most primitive compositions were erupted first and the magmas then changed to more differentiated compositions. The ridge-shaped tindars clearly erupted from volcanic fissures and the more equi-dimensional tuyas mainly from a single crater. It is suggested that the morphology and structure of the intraglacial volcanos mainly depends on two factors, (a) tectonic control and (b) availability of magma at the time of eruption.

How does Parkinson disease severity influence kinetics and kinematics during a rapid force production task?

The cardinal signs of Parkinson disease (PD) include bradykinesia, hypokinesia, tremor, and rigidity. These symptoms worsen as the disease progresses, often resulting in postural instability. However, little attention has been given to the effects of disease severity on the kinetics and kinematics of individual lower extremity joints during rapid force production tasks necessary for balance responses. Therefore, we examined lower extremity joint moments and average angular velocity of 14 subjects with PD who were segregated into 2 groups (less severe [n=7, mean age=62.29±6.73] and more severe [n=7, mean age=73.00±6.19]) based on UPDRS motor subsection scores while ON medication (less severe=7.14±2.19, more severe=17.43±6.75). Subjects completed 4–5 counter movement jumps (CMJ) 1 hour after taking their medication. Kinetic and kinematic variables were recorded for the explosive phase of the CMJ. Subject's first 3 successful trials were averaged and examined using the Mann‐Whitney U Test (p≤0.05). Individuals with less severe involvement move significantly faster; however, their ability to produce torque around the hip, knee, and ankle is not significantly different compared to more severely affected individuals.Grant Funding Source: NIH Grant #: 1 R15 HD056478‐01

Phylodynamics of HIV-1 subtype F1 in Angola, Brazil and Romania

The HIV-1 subtype F1 is exceptionally prevalent in Angola, Brazil and Romania. The epidemiological context in which the spread of HIV occurred was highly variable from one country to another, mainly due to the existence of a long-term civil war in Angola and the contamination of a large number of children in Romania. Here we apply phylogenetic and Bayesian coalescent-based methods to reconstruct the phylodynamic patterns of HIV-1 subtype F1 in such different epidemiological settings. The phylogenetic analyses of HIV-1 subtype F1 pol sequences sampled worldwide confirmed that most sequences from Angola, Brazil and Romania segregated in country-specific monophyletic groups, while most subtype F1 sequences from Romanian children branched as a monophyletic sub-cluster (Romania-CH) nested within sequences from adults. The inferred time of the most recent common ancestor of the different subtype F1 clades were as follow: Angola=1983 (1978–1989), Brazil=1977 (1972–1981), Romania adults=1980 (1973–1987), and Romania-CH=1985 (1978–1989). All subtype F1 clades showed a demographic history best explained by a model of logistic population growth. Although the expansion phase of subtype F1 epidemic in Angola (mid 1980s to early 2000s) overlaps with the civil war period (1975–2002), the mean estimated growth rate of the Angolan F1 clade (0.49year−1) was not exceptionally high, but quite similar to that estimated for the Brazilian (0.69year−1) and Romanian adult (0.36year−1) subtype F1 clades. The Romania-CH subtype F1 lineage, by contrast, displayed a short and explosive dissemination phase, with a median growth rate (2.47year−1) much higher than that estimated for adult populations. This result supports the idea that the AIDS epidemic that affected the Romanian children was mainly caused by the spread of the HIV through highly efficient parenteral transmission networks, unlike adult populations where HIV is predominantly transmitted through sexual route.

Evaluation of Redoubt Volcano's sulfur dioxide emissions by the Ozone Monitoring Instrument

The 2009 eruption of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska, provided a rare opportunity to compare satellite measurements of sulfur dioxide (SO2) by the Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) with airborne SO2 measurements by the Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO). Herein we: (1) compare OMI and airborne SO2 column density values for Redoubt's tropospheric plume, (2) calculate daily SO2 masses from Mount Redoubt for the first three months of the eruption, (3) develop simple methods to convert daily measured SO2 masses into emission rates to allow satellite data to be directly integrated with the airborne SO2 emissions dataset, (4) calculate cumulative SO2 emissions from the eruption, and (5) evaluate OMI as a monitoring tool for high-latitude degassing volcanoes. A linear correlation (R2~0.75) is observed between OMI and airborne SO2 column densities. OMI daily SO2 masses for the sample period ranged from ~60.1kt on 24 March to below detection limit, with an average daily SO2 mass of ~6.7kt. The highest SO2 emissions were observed during the initial part of the explosive phase and the emissions exhibited an overall decreasing trend with time. OMI SO2 emission rates were derived using three methods and compared to airborne measurements. This comparison yields a linear correlation (R2~0.82) with OMI-derived emission rates consistently lower than airborne measurements. The comparison results suggest that OMI's detection limit for high latitude, springtime conditions varies from ~2000 to 4000t/d. Cumulative SO2 masses calculated from daily OMI data for the sample period are estimated to range from 542 to 615kt, with approximately half of this SO2 produced during the explosive phase of the eruption. These cumulative masses are similar in magnitude to those estimated for the 1989–90 Redoubt eruption. Strong correlations between daily OMI SO2 mass and both tephra mass and acoustic energy during the explosive phase of the eruption suggest that OMI data may be used to infer relative eruption size and explosivity. Further, when used in conjunction with complementary datasets, OMI daily SO2 masses may be used to help distinguish explosive from effusive activity and identify changes in lava extrusion rates. The results of this study suggest that OMI is a useful volcano monitoring tool to complement airborne measurements, capture explosive SO2 emissions, and provide high temporal resolution SO2 emissions data that can be used with interdisciplinary datasets to illuminate volcanic processes.

Improved detection of sulphur dioxide in volcanic plumes using satellite‐based hyperspectral infrared measurements: Application to the Eyjafjallajökull 2010 eruption

The explosive phase of the eruption of the Eyjafjallajökull volcano in Iceland beginning on 14 April 2010 caused extensive disruption to aviation in Europe with serious social and economic consequences. Despite its impact, the explosive phase was modest in size and the amount of sulphur dioxide (SO2) released was low. The potential of hyperspectral thermal infrared measurements to discriminate emissions from similar events by measuring SO2 is examined using the Infrared Atmospheric Sounding Interferometer (IASI) on board MetOp‐A. The transported plume in the initial stages of the explosive phase contained low amounts of SO2 at low altitude which placed it at the detection limit of space‐based sensors used to monitor the volcanic threat to aviation using current methods. A recently developed technique for the fast retrieval of SO2 from IASI is applied in the context of the Eyjafjallajökull eruption to show that IASI is easily capable of sensing the SO2 in the plume at this stage where existing methods fail. The fast SO2 retrieval is calibrated against a fully quantitative optimal estimation retrieval of SO2 total column amount and plume altitude to derive the detection limit for the plume on 15 April 2010. An estimate of the general detection limit for the instrument is placed conservatively at 0.3 Dobson Units (DU) which is an order of magnitude lower than previously thought.

Geothermobarometry of the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruption: New constraints on Icelandic magma plumbing systems

The 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruption in Iceland produced mildly alkaline basalt that was emitted during the initial flank eruptive phase, whereas tephra predominately of benmorite composition was erupted during the second explosive phase from the summit of the volcano. These latter magmas show pervasive magma mingling between basalts and silicic magma. Glass and coexisting equilibrium mineral analyses have been used to define pressure‐temperature crystallization paths for the eruption based on melt, clinopyroxene‐melt and plagioclase‐melt thermobarometry. Temperature calculations show that the early basaltic eruptions from the flank eruption have magmatic temperatures of around 1170°C (±25°C) and a narrow temperature range (<30°C) at any given depth. In contrast, benmoritic products crystallized at lower temperatures (1000–1060°C). Pressure estimates yield an average pressure of 5.6–6.4 kbar (±1.5 kbar) for the basaltic tephra and variable but lower pressures for the benmoritic samples ranging down to 0.6 kbar. The mafic magma mainly crystallized in the deeper crust (16–18 km), whereas mingled magma from the summit eruption crystallized at more shallow crustal levels (2–5 km) suggesting multistage magma ascent. Magmatic water concentrations were estimated with plagioclase‐melt hygrometry. The maximum average water content of 1.8 wt % H2O, obtained in one of the summit samples, is in agreement with melt inclusion observations. Water concentration of this or lower levels is demonstrated to only have limited effect on the pressure‐temperature calculations.

Pyroclastic chronology of the Sancy stratovolcano (Mont-Dore, French Massif Central): New high-precision 40Ar/39Ar constraints

The Sancy (16km2) is the youngest of the two stratovolcanoes that constitute the Mont-Dore Massif (Massif Central, France). The restricted number of high precision radio-isotopic ages currently limits our knowledge of the pyroclastic chronology of this edifice which is the source of many tephra layers detected in middle Pleistocene sequences in southeast Europe. To improve our knowledge of the building phases of this stratovolcano, we collected thirteen pyroclastic units covering the entire proximal record. We present 40Ar/39Ar single grain laser dating performed in the facility hosted at the LSCE (Gif-sur-Yvette, France). The 40Ar/39Ar ages range from 1101±11ka to 392±7ka (1σ external). Four pyroclastic cycles lasting on average 100ka were identified (C. I to C. IV). C. I corresponds to the earlier explosive phase between 1101ka and 1000ka and starts about 100ka earlier than previously thought. The second pyroclastic cycle (C. II) is the main pyroclastic episode spanning from 818 to 685ka. This cycle is constituted of a minimum of 8 major pyroclastic eruptions and includes a major event that corresponds to a large plinian eruption at 719±10ka (1σ external) and recorded as a 1.4m thick layer 60km south-east of the Sancy volcano. The link between this large eruption and formation of a caldera stays however, hypothetical. The third pyroclastic cycle (C. III) found in the northeastern part of the Sancy (Mont-Dore valley) spanned from 642 to 537ka. Finally, the youngest pyroclastic cycle (C. IV) starts at 392ka and probably ends around 280ka. The age versus geographic location of each pyroclastic cycle indicates three preferential directions of channeling of the pyroclastic events and/or collapse of the volcanic edifice: northwest to west (C. I), southeast (C. II) and finally north to northeast (C. III and IV). The new high precision 40Ar/39Ar age for the Queureuilh bas pyroclastic unit (642±9ka) is identical within error with the U/Pb age obtained by Cocherie et al. (2009) [Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 73, 1095–1108] and suggests a short residence time of the magma in a shallow, short-lived, small magmatic chamber. Finally, the source of the t21d tephra layer found in the Piànico Séllere varved sequence (Northern Italy) is not the Rivaux pumice flow as proposed by Brauer et al. (2007) [Journal of Quaternary Science 22, 85–96] and neither one of the C. II pyroclastic units as suggested by Roulleau et al. (2009) [Quaternary International 204, 31–43]. Accordingly, the source for the t21d layer has yet to be found at Sancy or elsewhere.

A study of the correlation between electrical resistivity and matric suction for unsaturated ash-fall pyroclastic soils in the Campania region (southern Italy)

In the territory of the Campania region (southern Italy), critical rainfall events periodically trigger dangerous fast slope movements involving ashy and pyroclastic soils originated by the explosive phases of the Mt. Somma-Vesuvius volcano and deposited along the surrounding mountain ranges. In this paper, an integration of engineering-geological and geophysical measurements is presented to characterize unsaturated pyroclastic samples collected in a test area on the Sarno Mountains (Salerno and Avellino provinces, Campania region). The laboratory analyses were aimed at defining both soil water retention and electrical resistivity curves versus water content. From the matching of the experimental data, a direct relationship between electrical resistivity and matric suction is retrieved for the investigated soil horizons typical of an ash-fall pyroclastic succession. The obtained relation turns out to be helpful in characterizing soils up to close saturation, which is a critical condition for the trigger of slope failure. In such a regime, the water content and the matric suction have small variations, while electrical resistivity variations can be appreciated in a larger range of values. For this reason, besides suction measurements on very small soil volumes through classical tensiometers, our analyses suggest the direct monitoring of in situ electrical resistivity values as an effective tool to recognise the hydrological state of larger and more representative soil volumes and to improve early warning of dangerous slope movements.

The impact of the atmosphere on the Eyjafjallajökull 2010 eruption plume

The eruption of Eyjafjallajökull volcano in 2010 lasted 39 days, 14 April–23 May. The eruption had two explosive phases separated by a phase with lava formation and reduced explosive activity. During the explosive phases there were episodes of strong winds that advected ash to the south and southeast leading to widespread disruptions in air traffic. The height of the eruption plume was monitored with a weather radar and with web cameras mounted with a view of the volcano. Three different types of the impact of the ambient atmosphere on the eruption plume are described. First, the weather situation throughout the eruption has been analyzed. The frequency of northerly wind component is found to be unusually high, or 71% in comparison to 49% on average in spring. Secondly, during the effusive phase of the eruption diurnal variation was observed in the plume altitude and there is evidence that suggest that nocturnal inversions may have played a role, limiting the rise of the weak plume. Thirdly, images from a web camera were analyzed and the rise of individual cloud heads associated with explosions at the volcano vent mapped. The velocity profiles obtained largely agree with conceptual models of volcanic plumes.

Towards the enhancement of transdermal drug delivery through thermocavitation

AbstractAlthough for some highly lipophillic drugs the principal barrier to permeate the human skin may reside in the essentially viable epidermal membrane, for most molecules, the stratum corneum (SC) is the rate-limiting barrier to drug delivery. Today, several techniques have been developed to enhance transdermal drug delivery (TDD) by increasing the effective permeability of the SC (e.g., iontophoresis, electroporation, micro-needle, ultrasound, radio frequency and laser radiation). The goal of this study is to investigate the extent to which thermocavitation may be used as a novel alternative method to selectively pierce the SC and thus enhance TDD. Thermocavitation for this purpose is generated by a continuous wave (CW), low power laser beam focused on a highly-absorbing solution topically applied on the skin surface. The absorbed light creates a superheated volume in a tightly localized region followed by explosive phase transition and the formation of vapor-gas bubbles, which expand and later collapse very rapidly emitting intense acoustic shockwaves that disrupt the surface underneath.Thermocavitation bubbles were induced close to the surface of skin models (agar gels) andThe damage observed on agar gel and porcine skin appears to be congruent with the relationship between laser power, focal point, cavitation frequency and extent of damage observed in previous studies. In particular, the greatest damage induced to the agar phantoms was produced with the lowest laser power (∼153 mW) and thinnest solution layer (∼100 μm) used. Similar laser and solution layer settings led to porcine skin damage of ∼80–100 μm in diameter, which was sufficiently large to break the SC and allow the penetration of 4 kDa, FITC-dextran to depths of ∼40–60 μm.This novel approach to achieve cavitation is attractive and seems promising because it can be generated with inexpensive, low power CW lasers, capable of selectively disrupting the SC and allowing the penetration of large, hydrophilic drugs topically applied to the skin.

Observations of volcanic lightning during the 2009 eruption of Redoubt Volcano

Observations of volcanic lightning during the eruption of Redoubt Volcano in March and April 2009 were made with the Lightning Mapping Array. During the eruption twenty-three distinct episodes of volcanic lightning were observed. Electrical activity occurred as either a volcanic lightning storm with up to thousands of lightning discharges or as a weak electrical event with only a handful of lightning discharges. During the volcanic lightning storms we observed two phases of electrical activity: the explosive phase and the plume phase. The explosive phase consisted of very small discharges (on the order of 10–100m) occurring directly above the vent while an explosive eruption was ongoing, whereas the plume phase was comprised of discharges occurring throughout the plume subsequent to the explosive eruption. The area of discharges during the explosive phase ranged from less than 1km2 to 50km2 or more. The electrical activity at the beginning of the plume phase was dominated by small discharges. Over time the horizontal extent of the flashes increased, with the largest flashes occurring at the end of the plume phase. The distribution of the horizontal size of the discharges over the lifetime of the storm indicate that the charge structure of the plume evolved from a complex and ‘clumpy’ structure to a more simple horizontally stratified structure. Plume height was shown to be a key factor in the quantity of lightning in a storm. The volcanic lightning storms occurred in plumes with column heights greater than 10km. The tall plumes may contribute to the efficiency of charge generation through ice collisions by providing strong updrafts from the large thermal energy input from the eruption.

The nature of explosive percolation phase transition

In this Letter, we show that the explosive percolation is a novel continuous phase transition. The order-parameter-distribution histogram at the percolation threshold is studied in Erdős–Rényi networks, scale-free networks, and square lattice. In finite system, two well-defined Gaussian-like peaks coexist, and the valley between the two peaks is suppressed with the system size increasing. This finite-size effect always appears in typical first-order phase transition. However, both of the two peaks shift to zero point in a power law manner, which indicates the explosive percolation is continuous in the thermodynamic limit. The nature of explosive percolation in all the three structures belongs to this novel continuous phase transition. Various scaling exponents concerning the order-parameter-distribution are obtained.

Combining local and remote infrasound recordings from the 2009 Redoubt Volcano eruption

The explosive phase of the 2009 Redoubt Volcano eruption produced predominantly short duration, high-amplitude infrasound signals recorded up to 4500km away. All 19 numbered explosive events were recorded at a local microphone (DFR, 12km), as well as at an infrasound array in Fairbanks, Alaska (I53US, 547km), most with high signal to noise ratios. The local microphone provides an estimate of the source parameters, and comparison between the two datasets allows the unique opportunity to evaluate acoustic source term estimation at a remote array. High waveform similarity between DFR and I53US occurs during much of the explosive phase due to strong stratospheric ducting, permitting accurate source constraints inferred from I53US data. Cross-correlation analysis after applying a Hilbert transform to the I53US data shows how the acoustic energy has passed through a single caustic, as predicted by ray theory. Similar to previous studies, significant low-frequency infrasound from Redoubt recorded at I53US is coincident with high-altitude ash emissions. The largest events also produced considerable energy at greater than 50s periods, likely related to the initial oscillations of the volcanic plume or jet. Many of the explosive events have emergent onsets, somewhat unusual for explosive, short-duration eruptions. Comparison of the satellite-derived SO2 emissions with the relative amount of acoustic energy at I53US shows a very high, statistically significant correlation. This study reiterates the utility of using remote infrasound arrays for detection of hazardous emissions and characterization of large volcanic eruptions, and demonstrates how, under typical meteorological conditions, remote infrasound arrays can provide an accurate representation of the acoustic source.

Observations of the altitude of the volcanic plume during the eruption of Eyjafjallajökull, April–May 2010

Abstract. The eruption of Eyjafjallajökull volcano in 2010 lasted for 39 days, 14 April–23 May. The eruption had two explosive phases separated by a phase with lava formation and reduced explosive activity. The height of the plume was monitored every 5 min with a C-band weather radar located in Keflavík International Airport, 155 km distance from the volcano. Furthermore, several web cameras were mounted with a view of the volcano, and their images saved every five seconds. Time series of the plume-top altitude were constructed from the radar observations and images from a web camera located in the village Hvolsvöllur at 34 km distance from the volcano. This paper presents the independent radar and web camera time series and performs cross validation. The results show good agreement between the time series for the range when both series are available. However, while the radar altitudes are semi-discrete the data availability was much higher than for the web camera, indicating how essential weather radars are as eruption plume monitoring devices. The echo top radar series of the altitude of the volcanic plume are publicly available from the Pangaea Data Publisher (http://dx.doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.760690).

Validation of the FALL3D ash dispersion model using observations of the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull volcanic ash clouds

During April–May 2010 volcanic ash clouds from the Icelandic Eyjafjallajökull volcano reached Europe causing an unprecedented disruption of the EUR/NAT region airspace. Civil aviation authorities banned all flight operations because of the threat posed by volcanic ash to modern turbine aircraft. New quantitative airborne ash mass concentration thresholds, still under discussion, were adopted for discerning regions contaminated by ash. This has implications for ash dispersal models routinely used to forecast the evolution of ash clouds. In this new context, quantitative model validation and assessment of the accuracies of current state-of-the-art models is of paramount importance. The passage of volcanic ash clouds over central Europe, a territory hosting a dense network of meteorological and air quality observatories, generated a quantity of observations unusual for volcanic clouds. From the ground, the cloud was observed by aerosol lidars, lidar ceilometers, sun photometers, other remote-sensing instruments and in-situ collectors. From the air, sondes and multiple aircraft measurements also took extremely valuable in-situ and remote-sensing measurements. These measurements constitute an excellent database for model validation. Here we validate the FALL3D ash dispersal model by comparing model results with ground and airplane-based measurements obtained during the initial 14–23 April 2010 Eyjafjallajökull explosive phase. We run the model at high spatial resolution using as input hourly-averaged observed heights of the eruption column and the total grain size distribution reconstructed from field observations. Model results are then compared against remote ground-based and in-situ aircraft-based measurements, including lidar ceilometers from the German Meteorological Service, aerosol lidars and sun photometers from EARLINET and AERONET networks, and flight missions of the German DLR Falcon aircraft. We find good quantitative agreement, with an error similar to the spread in the observations (however depending on the method used to estimate mass eruption rate) for both airborne and ground mass concentration. Such verification results help us understand and constrain the accuracy and reliability of ash transport models and it is of enormous relevance for designing future operational mitigation strategies at Volcanic Ash Advisory Centers. ► We perform high-resolution numerical simulations of the Eyafjallajökull volcanic ash clouds. ► Source term is assessed hourly using different models and plume heights from radar. ► We perform quantitative model validations versus in situ and remote ground-based observations. ► Results are crucial for knowing volcanic ash dispersion model limitations.

The 2007 eruption of Kelut volcano (East Java, Indonesia): Phenomenology, crisis management and social response

We focus in this paper on the processes and consequences of an unusual volcanic eruption at Kelut volcano, East Java. In November 2007, after two months of worrying precursor signs, Kelut volcano erupted. But neither explosions nor the usual hazards observed during the historic eruptions happened (e.g. ash falls, volcanic bombs and pyroclastic flows). Instead of an explosive eruption, the 2007 eruption was extrusive. Given than such an eruption could not be predicted, the authorities had to manage a new situation. We conducted interviews with nine stakeholders of the crisis management team, and undertook a questionnaire-based survey in the settlement nearest to the crater, in order to understand how the authorities managed the crisis, and how people reacted. Inquiries and questionnaires were carried out shortly after the end of the evacuation process, when the volcano was still under surveillance for fear of an explosive phase. The results display a real gap in what it takes to manage a crisis or live through a crisis. This suggests that the “unusual” eruption pattern of Kelut volcano was not the only factor of the misunderstanding between the authorities and the population. These problems stem from more structural causes such as the lack of communication and information when there is a need to adapt to a new scenario. In such a situation, the inability of the crisis management system to take decisions underscored the intrinsic vulnerability of the population despite a hierarchical and strategic top-down crisis management approach.

Dispersal of volcaniclasts during deep-sea eruptions: Settling velocities and entrainment in buoyant seawater plumes

We use tank experiments to measure settling rates of deep-sea volcaniclastic material recovered from the Arctic (85°E Gakkel Ridge) and Pacific (Juan de Fuca Ridge, Loihi seamount) Oceans. We find that clast size and shape exert a strong influence on settling velocity, with velocities of ~ 30 cm/s for large (~ 8 mm), blocky clasts, compared to velocities of ~ 2.5 cm/s for small (< 0.5 mm), sheet-like clasts. We fit our observations to the generalized model of Ferguson and Church (2004) to establish empirical scaling laws for settling velocity, and then use these results to test the hypothesis that entrainment in a buoyant plume of hot seawater is an important dispersal mechanism for volcaniclastic material in the deep-sea (Clague et al., 2009). We superpose the observed settling rates on velocity fields generated with the Morton et al. (1956) model for turbulent plumes in stratified media to estimate the rise height of the clastic material under water column conditions corresponding to the Gakkel and Juan de Fuca (JdFR) Ridges, and then estimate dispersal distances assuming the grains settle to the seafloor while being advected in lateral currents. Dispersal distances in our model are a function plume strength (i.e., buoyancy flux), lateral current speeds, and clast settling velocity. Our model demonstrates that large (30 GW) eruption ‘megaplumes’ can loft volcaniclastic material more than a kilometer above the seafloor where entrainment in deep-sea currents can advect dominant clast types (~ 1 mm, blocky grains) up to a few hundred meters from a source vent. Small bubble-wall fragments (e.g., limu o Pele) entrained in a megaplume could be advected as far as a few kilometers from a source region. These results indicate that entrainment in buoyant seawater plumes during an eruption may play an important role in clast dispersal, but it is not clear if this mechanism can explain the distribution of volcaniclastic material at the sites on the Gakkel and Juan de Fuca Ridges where our samples were acquired. In order to understand the dispersal of volcaniclastic material in the deep-sea it will be necessary to rigorously characterize existing deposits, and develop models capable of incorporating explosive gas phases into the eruption plume.

Nonlinear evolution of double tearing mode with guiding magnetic field

Nonlinear dynamic evolution of the double tearing mode (DTM) with a guiding magnetic field (By0) is investigated by magnetohydrodynamical numerical simulation. The dynamic process of DTM depends weakly on the guiding field in the weak guiding field regime (By0≤1), but is suppressed by a strong guiding field (By0&amp;gt;2). During the explosive nonlinear phase, the maximum reconnection rate (γmax) increases weakly with the increase of the resistivity as γmax~η0.06 for By0≤1, but for By0&amp;gt;2, γmax is nearly independent of the resistivity. The maximum reconnection rate in the explosive growth phase increases with increase of the initial current sheet separation. A secondary tearing instability is observed at moderate current sheet separation. A strong guiding field suppresses the formation of a secondary island. Based on the simulation results, it is found that the secondary tearing instability occurs only when the length-to-thickness aspect ratio of the reconnection region exceeds about 20.

Mafic Plinian volcanism and ignimbrite emplacement at Tofua volcano, Tonga

Tofua Island is the largest emergent mafic volcano within the Tofua arc, Tonga, southwest Pacific. The volcano is dominated by a distinctive caldera averaging 4 km in diameter, containing a freshwater lake in the south and east. The latest paroxysmal (VEI 5–6) explosive volcanism includes two phases of activity, each emplacing a high-grade ignimbrite. The products are basaltic andesites with between 52 wt.% and 57 wt.% SiO2. The first and largest eruption caused the inward collapse of a stratovolcano and produced the ‘Tofua’ ignimbrite and a sub-circular caldera located slightly northwest of the island’s centre. This ignimbrite was deposited in a radial fashion over the entire island, with associated Plinian fall deposits up to 0.5 m thick on islands >40 km away. Common sub-rounded and frequently cauliform scoria bombs throughout the ignimbrite attest to a small degree of marginal magma–water interaction. The common intense welding of the coarse-grained eruptive products, however, suggests that the majority of the erupted magma was hot, water-undersaturated and supplied at high rates with moderately low fragmentation efficiency and low levels of interaction with external water. We propose that the development of a water-saturated dacite body at shallow (<6 km) depth resulted in failure of the chamber roof to cause sudden evacuation of material, producing a Plinian eruption column. Following a brief period of quiescence, large-scale faulting in the southeast of the island produced a second explosive phase believed to result from recharge of a chemically distinct magma depleted in incompatible elements. This similar, but smaller eruption, emplaced the ‘Hokula’ Ignimbrite sheet in the northeast of the island. A maximum total volume of 8 km3 of juvenile material was erupted by these events. The main eruption column is estimated to have reached a height of ∼12 km, and to have produced a major atmospheric injection of gas, and tephra recorded in the widespread series of fall deposits found on coral islands 40–80 km to the east (in the direction of regional upper-tropospheric winds). Radiocarbon dating of charcoal below the Tofua ignimbrite and organic material below the related fall units imply this eruption sequence occurred post 1,000 years BP. We estimate an eruption magnitude of 2.24 × 1013 kg, sulphur release of 12 Tg and tentatively assign this eruption to the AD 1030 volcanic sulphate spike recorded in Antarctic ice sheet records.