Exploratory Talk Research Articles

Towards exploratory talk in secondary-school CLIL: An empirical study of the cognitive discourse function ‘explore’

Exploratory talk is increasingly recognized in formal education for its role in enhancing students’ critical thinking and literacy skills, which are crucial for quality education both within and beyond school contexts. However, research shows that students often lack opportunities for inquiry-based learning and rarely receive explicit guidance on using language for reasoning, particularly in second language (L2) learning environments. Understanding how students engage in this complex function and effectively promoting it in L2 subject contexts remains a challenge. This study introduces an operational framework for the function of ‘explore’, based on L2 learning and socio-cultural theories and Dalton-Puffer’s construct of cognitive discourse functions (CDFs). It provides both quantitative and qualitative insights into how secondary-level content and language integrated learning (CLIL) students ( N = 113) from three different types of schools in Spain performed the ‘explore’ function orally, and it examines the role of epistemic modality in this meaning-making process by analysing the following features: (1) modal verbs, (2) modal adverbs and adjectives, (3) epistemic lexical verbs (ELVs), stance-taking forms, (4) discourse markers and the conditional ‘if’. A learner corpus was created for this analysis using Sketch Engine. The findings suggest that the CDF of ‘explore’ involves a combination of epistemic modality markers that serve as reasoning and exploratory discourse indicators. There is, however, a pressing need to raise teachers’ awareness of how language (through CDFs) supports students’ exploratory and deeper learning in L2 content-learning contexts. To this end, the discussion presents pedagogical implications for future research and practice in fostering exploratory reasoning, and where possible, embedding these skills in exploratory talk within CLIL classrooms.

The Impact of a Dialogic Intervention on a Chinese Rural Teacher and Students' Stances Towards Texts

ABSTRACTIn language arts classrooms, dialogic teaching encourages diverse text interpretations, fostering discussions that enhance students' literacy skills like reasoning. However, adopting a dialogic stance poses challenges for both teachers and students. The study investigated the impact of a tailor‐made dialogic intervention on a Chinese rural teacher and students' stances towards texts. Chinese rural students shifted from efferent and instrumental stances to a more critical‐analytical stance, indicating a profound change in how rural students interacted with texts through exploratory talk, highlighting the potential of dialogic teaching practices to foster deep engagement with reading materials. However, after the intervention ended, the teacher reverted to a monologic approach due to limited dialogic texts and time constraints. The findings underscore the potential of dialogic teaching for engaging rural students, yet highlight the need for sustained teacher training and suitable texts. Future research should focus on cultivating and maintaining students' growth mindset effectively in rural settings.

To what extent can oracy education and student dialogue support historical thinking skills in Year 7?

Abstract During the course of my teacher training, I have encountered two distinct classroom contexts for oracy: a term that refers to the ability to express oneself in speech. At my first placement school, very few students were willing to answer questions or present arguments in front of their peers. Conversely, the majority of students at my second placement school are keen to demonstrate their knowledge, yet often speak over one another during discussion tasks. In both schools, dialogue is mainly directed towards the teacher; students rarely offer extended answers during lessons, and oral reasoning and argumentation generally take place as a precursor to written work. I therefore wanted to implement a sequence of lessons where the learning was intentionally carried out and measured through student talk and cooperation. In particular, I wanted to examine how far teaching specific oracy skills and providing informal scaffolded opportunities for presentational and exploratory talk can support the development of historical thinking skills in Year 7 (age 11): in other words, students' ability to consider multiple historical perspectives; to appreciate the difference between modern and ancient values; to critically engage with historical terminology, and to present and justify an argument. Students' responses were generally positive and engagement raised. I conclude with further thoughts about future practice.

Modeling Group Discourse with Epistemic Network Analysis: Unpacking Connections, Perspectives, and Individual Contributions

AbstractOperationalizing and modeling group talk has proved to be a consistent challenge in educational research. In this paper, we suggest that epistemic network analysis (ENA) could provide unique insights concerning group talk. Specifically, we use ENA to model the talk orientations put forward in the Exploratory Talk framework (Cumulative, Disputational, Exploratory). Participants (n = 60, 67% female, 33% male) were undergraduate students in an Introduction to Psychology course who took part in three 90-min collaborative online tasks. We coded student discourse according to a set of basic communicative acts reflective of the Exploratory Talk framework. Then, using ENA, we identified different groups’ patterns of discourse at the group and individual level. Presenting the epistemic networks of four purposefully chosen groups, this paper offers three key contributions to modeling and conceptualizing group dialogue: (1) illustrating how ENA could offer new ways to analyze group talk by focusing on the frequency of co-occurrence of connections between a basic set of communicate acts rather than the different communicative acts used; (2) refining the theoretical conceptualization of Exploratory Talk by distinguishing two sub-variations—other-oriented vs. self-oriented Exploratory Talk—that differ according to the depth of engagement with other perspectives; (3) examining how ENA allows unpacking diverging dynamics of individual contributions to group discourse, focusing on the role of individuals that function as “instigators” or “connectors.”

Developing Teachers’ Advocate Identities Through Exploratory Talk

ABSTRACT In educational contexts characterized by persisting inequalities, preparing teachers to advocate for historically marginalized students is a critical element in constructing more equitable educational experiences for all students and their families. However, little is known about how teachers develop and hone their sense of advocacy. Therefore, this study documents how English as a second language (ESL) endorsement candidates (ECs; n = 60) collaboratively develop a sense of “advocacy identity” when they engage in exploratory talk after a simulated advocacy experience. Drawing on group reflection videos, findings highlight how teachers’ lives and experiences inform their interpretations of advocacy. By sharing personal narratives and different types of knowledge, teachers articulate their thinking, solidify their stance as advocates, and co-construct new understandings of what it means to be an advocate for their multilingual learners (MLs). These findings have implications for promoting deeper engagement with advocacy in teacher education and professional development, ultimately toward building collaborative capacity for teachers to support and advocate for historically marginalized students.

Exploratory talk in times of globalisation and digitalisation: a narrative review

Over the last decades researchers and educators have promoted the use of language in collaborative activities in the classroom. Accordingly, there is considerable support for the sociocultural idea that knowledge is the result of a co-constructed activity of students, and that exploratory talk can support them to develop higher-order thinking, high-level understanding, the voicing of personal opinions and ideas, and argumentation skills. Positive learning effects of exploratory talk have inspired researchers all over the world to replicate, refine or elaborate on these early studies, using both quantitative and qualitative methods and often finding similar positive linguistic, cognitive, social, psychological, and pedagogical effects. In this study we present a narrative review into the definition, measurement, and effects of exploratory talk. The review is both a part and an extension of a PhD study on the use of exploratory talk in primary schools in Flanders, the Dutch speaking part of Belgium. Based on this review we will highlight the relevancy of exploratory talk and associated challenges for L1 education in a globalising, diversifying and digitalising context. We will argue that exploratory talk can meet these challenges, but its potential can only be realized fully by a shift towards dialogic teaching as opposed to the IRF/IRE-pattern which still seems to dominate classroom practice.

Facilitating exploratory talk through mathematical programming problems

Facilitating exploratory talk through mathematical programming problems

Talk that supports learners’ folding back for growth in understanding geometry

In this article, we argue that folding back is successful when the learners engage in exploratory talk. To support our argument, we sourced data from a Grade 10 mathematics classroom of 54 learners who participated in a four-week teaching experiment conducted by the second author. We mainly focused on talks in two groups of learners to address the silence of literature on folding back that alludes to the kind of talk that learners engage in. Data were captured through video recording of learners’ interactions as they worked on the tasks in different sessions. We present these data as transcribed extracts of talks that the learners held and synthesise them into stories through Polkinghorne’s narrative mode of data analysis, also using a process that Kim referred to as narrative smoothing. Pirie and Kieren’s conception of folding back and Wegerif and Mercer’s three ways of talking and thinking among learners were used as a heuristic device for synthesising the stories. The narratives illustrate that exploratory talk promotes folding back, where learners build on each other’s ideas to develop geometry understanding. Therefore, the significance of this article is that for classrooms that wish to promote growth in understanding through folding back, the type of talk that should be normative is exploratory talk.Contribution: Our search of the literature databases has yet to reveal an empirical study that draws attention to exploratory talk’s role in developing learners’ understanding of geometry in South Africa. However, this study is one of those that allude to the support of exploratory talk on folding back in developing geometry understanding. Our findings imply that mathematics classrooms should consider incorporating exploratory talk as part of teaching and learning geometry. Furthermore, studies on engendering exploratory talk in teaching mathematics are recommended.

Enhancing Mathematical Reasoning in Primary School with the Strategic Board Game Othello

This study explores how the board game Othello can enhance primary school students' mathematical reasoning. Mathematical reasoning is increasingly emphasized in international mathematics curricula, yet both teachers and students face challenges in teaching and learning this important skill. Research shows that strategic games, like Othello, can develop thinking abilities related to mathematical reasoning by providing a context for students to engage in reflective thinking, anticipate future moves, and develop reasoning strategies. However, there is a need to understand how teachers can effectively utilize these games in the classroom to foster mathematical reasoning. We address this, through a design-based research approach consisting of a hermeneutic literature study and the development of design principles for a teaching intervention in a fifth-grade classroom. Data from the intervention is collected through participant observations and group interviews. The findings suggest that Othello can serve as a context for students to engage in mathematical reasoning by making and justifying claims and presenting logical arguments. The study proposes three design principles to scaffold mathematical reasoning during Othello gameplay. These principles focus on introducing and reinforcing the use of the "if...then" formulation, promoting exploratory talk, encouraging reflection on strategies, and fostering collaborative reasoning. The results indicate that the design principles positively impacted students' ability to reason mathematically. This paper contributes to the field of mathematics education and game-based learning by providing a practice-oriented perspective on designing mathematical instruction for reasoning using a specific board game in a primary school setting. The findings offer insights into the potential of strategic board games like Othello to enhance students' mathematical reasoning skills. The design principles proposed in this study can guide teachers in developing effective instructional approaches to support students' mathematical reasoning development.

Children’s exploratory talk: The role of verbal communication during construction

The article presents the results of qualitative research aimed at recognizing the role of exploratory speech in the process of constructing and engaging in conceptual activity. The study involved 22 third-grade primary school students who were involved in designing, constructing and testing products for four months. The data was obtained through observations, photographic documentation and transcription of recorded dialogues. Two areas were analyzed, including interactions (communication in a group, negotiations, dialogues leading to problem solving, argumentation), as well as communication challenges (both vocabulary and communication style). The results of the analysis indicate the role of exploratory talk as a tool for building meanings supporting problem solving during construction. Conclusions may be important for educational practice and contribute to the promotion of students’ conceptual activity.

Flexible co-construction of meaning: facilitating emergent bi/multilingual children’s emergent exploratory talk in Spanish literature discussions

ABSTRACT Emergent bi/multilingual children have historically been afforded few opportunities to engage dialogically with peers and teachers in posing authentic questions and co- constructing interpretations of texts as their reading instruction has traditionally been skills driven. Additionally, more recent scholarship has identified increased opportunities for participation and meaning-making when bi/multilingual children discuss literature within linguistically flexible discussion spaces. This case study examines teacher discourse and discussion facilitation that foreground children’s emerging exploratory talk and validate their bi/multilingual practices during literature discussions conducted in Spanish in a second-grade maintenance dual language bilingual education classroom within a public school in the Midwest United States. Analysis focuses on teacher and child interactions, including the teacher’s uptake of children’s ideas and authentic questions, shared authority among teacher and children, and the teacher’s use and modeling of bilingual practices, such as external code-switching when recounting brief stories, within the discussion space. Findings demonstrate how teacher facilitation and discourse patterns interact in ways that promote children’s emerging exploratory talk within a dialogically organized linguistically flexible discussion space.

A Case Study of International Business students’ Experiences with Exploratory Talk Ground Rules in Online Group Work

ABSTRACT This study investigates how students experience and describe group work in an online course in international business (IB) after being introduced to Barnes’ exploratory talk ground rules (ETGRs) which promote norms for dialog that encourage participants to share ideas and information and to think together. This study examines the dialog in groups of fourteen IB undergraduates attending a four-week online course in International Management. Initially, the students received briefings about the ETGRs and wrote self-reports throughout the course, on which we conducted a thematic analysis. Our findings show that students who engage with and apply the ETGRs describe more shared responsibility for collaborative learning in the group work, a greater interest in exploring the perspectives of group members, and overall, more positive learning experiences. This implies that making the ETGRs transparent is considered beneficial for social interactions in group work. However, the teacher plays a key role in creating a class environment conducive for collaborative learning, and preconditions for productive group work, including a good assignment structure and proper technology preparation, must be met. The findings and their implications are discussed herein.

Dialogic co-creation in English language teaching and learning: a personal experience

Abstract This report will discuss the development and implementation of a dialogic co-creation model for English language teaching in the Language Resource Centre at the Technical University of Darmstadt, Germany. The focus of this report will be on the impact of content co-creation and its impact on learner and teacher autonomy in English language learning and teaching. This collaborative, dialogic model draws primarily on principles of dialogism and exploratory talk (ET) and exemplifies a novel, learner-centered method for curriculum development and teaching in Higher Education. This learner-centered perspective advances an in-depth understanding of the relationship between language learner and teacher, content and language integrated learning (CLIL), language for specific purposes (LSP), their respective content boundaries, the role of content expert and the inhibition threshold. Three examples of teaching English to university professors and professional staff using this model will be discussed. The author proposes that such a model could be adapted and scaled into larger student groups, too.

A newcomer’s spontaneous translanguaging in lower-secondary physics education

ABSTRACT Research indicates that encouraging translanguaging can enhance learning in a range of contexts. However, there are few studies examining translanguaging for learning among newcomers in science education. This case study fills this research gap by examining in what ways a newcomer to the school uses translanguaging practices with his classmate to participate more fully in a linguistically diverse physics classroom, where neither the teacher nor a majority of the students share the same home language. The data comprises transcriptions of video and audio recordings and photographs from nine physics lessons (students aged 14–15 years). Translanguaging practices 1 1 In this study the languages that students use in contexts beyond the classroom are called home languages. Here we draw on Eisenschlas and Schalley (2020) who argue that in reference to languages that “home” is “not the same as “house one lives in” (i.e. the physical space), and should be understood more broadly as referring to a “point of reference from which speakers navigate the world” (p. 34). were identified and analyzed from a sociocultural perspective. Benito, the newcomer, spontaneously used English, Swedish, Spanish and Portuguese and prior knowledge in creative ways in interactions with his classmate during pair work, something that was not possible in whole class instruction. Multilingual peer dialogue, multilingual private speech and the use of multilingual artifacts increased learning opportunities. Moreover, Benito and his classmate Edin engaged in exploratory talk and demonstrated metalinguistic awareness. This study indicates that teachers who actively facilitate the use of students' multiple linguistic resources for sensemaking can contribute to a more egalitarian education and increase opportunities for learning in linguistically diverse classrooms.

Between biology and religion: dialogue in the Saudi primary science classroom

ABSTRACT This study explored the usefulness of the open dialogue strategy to help Saudi Arabian primary teachers teach, and fourth-grade students learn, the key biological concept of classification, which is a significant challenge for students to grasp, especially the concept of humans versus animals. The convenience sample comprised N = 84 Grade four students (50% female, 50% male) in the 2018 Autumn term from four schools (two boys/two girls) in one city in the Northern region of Saudi Arabia and four (N = 4) teachers (self-selected sampling), one for each of four classes. A content and conversational analysis of translated and transcribed transcripts of the researcher’s classroom observations, interpreted through the communicative approach, the Intermental Development Zone (IDZ), and exploratory talk, affirmed the effectiveness of open dialogue in Saudi primary science classes. Findings showed that, to move through the dialogue process and learn about the scientific concept of classification, students drew on (a) their religious views, (b) their personal religious beliefs and (c) the notions of Darwin’s theory of evolution and Islamic creationism. Findings affirmed that using dialogue in primary science classes helped students learn aspects of the Saudi science curriculum. Findings further supported preparing preservice and inservice Saudi science teachers in both planned and open dialogue teaching strategies.

The Potential of Podcasts for Exploratory Talk in High School

Educational podcasting may support student collaboration and learning. However, little is known about how students talk with each other when developing podcasts in groups. In this study, eight groups of Norwegian high school students (N = 30) developed podcasts about contemporary poems in their literature class. The study focuses on the extent to which on-task student talk was presentational or exploratory, and serves to illustrate occasions of exploratory talk in educational podcasting projects. Subsequent analysis of 50 hours of audio recordings collected throughout the four-week project showed that exploratory talk was most prevalent during the beginning of the project and presentational talk toward the end. Excerpts from two group works show how exploratory talk manifested in group conversations during the project. The study demonstrates that students may engage in exploratory talk when developing podcasts, indicating that such projects in combination with broad pedagogical approaches may foster educational dialogues.

ILearn? Investigating dialogical interaction with tablets in mathematics lessons

ABSTRACT There is a significant body of research that indicates that the use of tablets to learn mathematics in elementary school motivates students to learn. Low mathematical attainment in international benchmarking tests of mathematics in South Africa led the authors to investigate the potential that the mobility of the tablet provided for children to learn how to reason using what Mercer called ‘exploratory’ talk, a form of dialogical interaction indicative of reasoning. In this article the authors investigate two grade 6 classrooms in two schools where students are learning mathematics using tablets. In this multiple case study, the authors videotaped children during mathematics lessons where they used tablets to solve mathematical problems, and the data were transcribed. Findings indicate that the tablets across both contexts facilitate what Mercer calls exploratory talk, which is indicative of reasoning and, therefore, learning.

Investigating the dialogic patterns of mathematics lessons in different stages of education

Classroom dialogue is widely used in mathematics teaching and learning, and if managed strategically, it will have productive benefits for mathematics achievement. However, dialogic participants often lack awareness of how dialogue could be constructed, and few studies show the characteristics of dialogic patterns in different stages of education. Drawing on the data from the Chinese National Cloud Platform, this study therefore comparatively examined the dialogic patterns of mathematics lessons captured in primary, secondary and high schools in China, using 300 video-recorded mathematics lessons, with 100 lessons for each stage of education. Classroom dialogue was transcribed and systematically coded, after which a lag sequential pattern mining technique was used to examine the collective process of dialogic contributions. Findings indicated that there were both similarities and differences in terms of the dialogue pattern throughout the three stages. Dialogue concerning previously-learnt knowledge, subjective expressions and analysis appeared frequently in mathematics lessons in the three education stages, while speculative talk and querying were less often observed. There were commonalities between dialogic patterns captured in mathematics lessons in secondary and high schools, which were significantly different from those in primary schools. The variation was most obvious in dialogue showing high-level cognition, namely, analysis, coordination and speculation. Prominent sequences captured in secondary and high school lessons were able to involve dialogue at both low and high cognitive levels, which demonstrated the characteristics of exploratory talk. This knowledge could help create productive classroom dialogue, and benefit mathematics teaching and learning.

Bloom’s Taxonomy and Classroom Talk: Exploring the Relationship Between the Nature of Small Group Discussion Tasks and the Quality of Learners’ Talk

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between the nature of small group discussion tasks and learners’ talk during Physical Science lessons. The study was conducted during Physical Science lessons with three self-selected groups of Grade 11 learners from one school. A total of three lessons were followed. During the lessons, learners were given group tasks to complete, and their discussion was audio-recorded. The small group discussion tasks were coded using the revised Bloom’s taxonomy. The audio-recordings were transcribed and coded using Mercer’s three types of talk. The nature of tasks in the small group discussions was paired with the type of talk used as the group members were responding to the tasks and the frequency of these pairs was analysed. Analysis of the tasks vs. types of talk used indicated that learners predominately used cumulative talk to find solutions to understanding tasks. Exploratory talk was predominately used to find solutions to application tasks. The findings show that this relationship between the nature of small group discussion tasks and learners’ type of talk is statistically significant at p = 0.05 level. No disputational talk occurrences were observed. It is noted that the type of talk used to address each type of task is related to the cognitive skills demanded by the task, group composition and the embracing of the spirit of ubuntu by the group members.

“We can make our words powerful”: students’ perspectives about using Talk Factory, a classroom technology to support exploratory talk

ABSTRACT Previous research suggests that students can use exploratory talk to support their thinking and learning. However, students’ own perspectives on such talk, and whether/how they value it, are rarely sought. Thirty 12-year-olds and their teacher used Talk Factory on an interactive whiteboard and iPads to support exploratory talk in English lessons twice/week for five weeks. Four focal students took photographs and chose words that described their feelings; their responses were discussed in two interviews together with their experiences of the lessons. These students were video recorded whilst presenting their experiences and opinions to the class. Thematic analysis of the interviews identified four themes: how students adopted exploratory talk, challenges they faced, ownership of their discussions, and the value of mobilising their ideas. The students described feeling more empowered, more engaged, and how they valued the exploration of difference.