Scientific Explanation Research Articles

Causal‐mechanical explanations in biology: Applying automated assessment for personalized learning in the science classroom

AbstractOne of the core practices of science is constructing scientific explanations. However, numerous studies have shown that constructing scientific explanations poses significant challenges to students. Proper assessment of scientific explanations is costly and time‐consuming, and teachers often do not have a clear definition of the educational goals for formulating scientific explanations. Consequently, teachers struggle to support their students in this process. It is hoped that recent advances in machine learning (ML) and its application to educational technologies can assist teachers and learners in analyzing student responses and providing automated formative feedback according to well‐defined pedagogical criteria. In this study, we present a method to automate the entire assessment‐feedback process. First, we developed a causal‐mechanical (CM)‐based grading rubric and applied it to student responses to two open‐ended items. Second, we used unsupervised ML tools to identify patterns in student responses. Those patterns enable the definition of “meta‐categories” of explanation types and the design of personalized feedback adapted to each category. Third, we designed an in‐class intervention with personalized formative feedback that matches the response patterns. We used natural language processing and ML algorithms to assess students' explanations and provide feedback. Findings from a controlled experiment demonstrated that a CM‐based grading scheme can be used to identify meaningful patterns and inform the design of formative feedback that promotes student ability to construct explanations in biology. We discuss possible implications for automated assessment and personalized teaching and learning of scientific writing in K‐12 science education.

Changing perspectives on autism: Overlapping contributions of evolutionary psychiatry and the neurodiversity movement.

Perspectives on autism and psychiatric conditions are affected by a mix of scientific and social influences. Evolutionary psychiatry (EP) and the neurodiversity movement are emerging paradigms that reflect these distinct influences, with the former grounded in scientific theory and the latter driven by political and social principles. Despite their separate foundations, there is a significant overlap between EP and neurodiversity that has not been explored. Specifically, both paradigms reframe disorders as natural cognitive differences rather than disease; expand the concept of "normal" beyond that implied in modern psychiatry; focus on relative strengths; recognize that modern environments disadvantage certain individuals to cause functional impairment; emphasize cognitive variation being socially accommodated and integrated rather than treated or cured; and can help reduce stigmatization. However, in other ways, they are distinct and sometimes in conflict. EP emphasizes scientific explanation, defines "dysfunction" in objective terms, and differentiates heterogenous cases based on underlying causes (e.g. autism due to de novo genetic mutations). The neurodiversity movement emphasizes social action, removes barriers to inclusion, promotes inclusive language, and allows unrestricted identification as neurodivergent. By comparing and contrasting these two approaches, we find that EP can, to some extent, support the goals of neurodiversity. In particular, EP perspectives could be convincing to groups more responsive to scientific evidence and help achieve a middle ground between neurodiversity advocates and critics of the movement.

“I Would Rather Lose Everything Else I Possess”: Love of Nature and L.M. Montgomery’s Intuitive Wellness Strategies, 1901-11

L.M. Montgomery’s use of “rambles” to de-escalate depressive episodes and restore her mental wellness is well documented in the entries she made in her PEI journals while living in Cavendish and Halifax from 1901 to 1911. Modern-day research on forest bathing and seasonal affective disorder provides scientific explanations for why the time Montgomery spent in nature may have boosted her mental health during a pivotal period in her career, particularly during the winter of 1905 to 1906, when she was composing Anne of Green Gables.

Anthropological Approach as a Strategy to Increase Interest in Learning Islamic Education

This research examines how an anthropological approach can increase interest in studying Islamic religious education at the Muhammadiyah University of Palu. This research uses a qualitative approach with a phenomenological type of research. Data analysis in this research uses single data analysis (individual case analysis), with a data analysis model from Miles and Huberman, through three activities that co-occur: data reduction, data presentation, and conclusion drawing/verification. In this research, it was found that the anthropological approach in Islamic Education learning at Muhammadiyah University in Palu includes (1) an approach appropriate to student culture, (2) translating scientific explanations through local cultural symbols, (3) creating students who uphold the values ​​of wisdom, locally through learning Islamic education. Meanwhile, the impacts given to students are (1) providing comfort and increasing students' interest in learning, (2) helping students understand the material explained by their lecturers, and (3) giving birth to generations of Muslims who respect and uphold local wisdom values. , especially giving birth to a generation that does not conflict between Islam and local wisdom who does not think that local wisdom can tarnish the sanctity of Islam. However, he loves both of them, positions them according to their respective portions, and views them as values ​​that support each other.

Boundaries and classification: the cultural logic of treating foreign medicine

From the 16th to the 19th centuries, Western medicine emerged in China and was considered dangerous by Chinese residents. Relatedly, Chinese medical practitioners have attempted to use knowledge based on traditional Chinese medicine to explain the principles of Western medicine. From the 19th to 20th centuries, traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) was introduced to the United States, and American residents also described it as dangerous; they believed that TCM could only be accepted after scientific verification and explanation. This article uses the method of historical anthropology to explain these phenomena using boundaries as an analytical concept. This article finds that when foreign medicine crosses borders, it causes the disorganization of local classification systems. When a local classification system cannot provide a suitable location for foreign medicine, such medicine is easily regarded as dangerous by residents. The key to solving this problem is to use local classification systems to reinterpret foreign medicine. Reinterpreted by these local classification systems, foreign medicine can gain legitimacy within local societies. Based on this, the current article attempts to illustrate not only that science is a classification method but also that the boundary between science and nonscience is cultural in a sense, thereby undertaking corresponding cultural functions in daily life.

On the nature of evolutionary explanations: a critical appraisal of Walter Bock’s approach with a new revised proposal

Walter Bock was committed to developing a framework for evolutionary biology. Bock repeatedly discussed how evolutionary explanations should be considered within the realm of Hempel’s deductive-nomological model of scientific explanations. Explanation in evolution would then consist of functional and evolutionary explanations, and within the latter, an explanation can be of nomological-deductive and historical narrative explanations. Thus, a complete evolutionary explanation should include, first, a deductive functional analysis, and then proceed through nomological and historical evolutionary explanations. However, I will argue that his views on the deductive proprieties of functional analysis and the deductive-nomological parts of evolution fail because of the nature of evolution, which contains a historical element that the logic of deduction and Hempel’s converting law model do not compass. Conversely, Bock’s historical approach gives a critical consideration of the historical narrative element of evolutionary explanation, which is fundamental to the methodology of the historical nature of evolutionary theory. Herein, I will expand and discuss a modern view of evolutionary explanations of traits that includes the currentacknowledgement of the differences between experimental and the historical sciences, including the token and type event dichotomy, that mutually illuminate each other in order to give us a well confirmed and coherent hypothesis for evolutionary explanations. Within this framework, I will argue that the duality of evolutionary explanations is related to two components of character evolution: origin, with its evolutionary pathways along with the history, and maintenance, the function (mainly a current function) for the character being selected.

Beyond Belief: A Scientific Inquiry into the Myths and Looms of Hindu Rituals

This study, titled "Beyond Belief: A Scientific Inquiry into the Myths and Looms of Hindu Rituals," explores the myths surrounding Bengali rituals among Hindus and investigates the relationship between science and these rituals, with a focus on birth and marriage ceremonies. Employing content analysis and meta-research, the study examines four research questions to uncover the persistent myths in the minds of Hindus, the connection between science and rituals, and the role of science in these practices. The sample consists of 46 papers and articles, primarily drawn from community-based convenience samples, and a systematic review of literature from Google Scholar and Scopus databases guides the research. The data collection involves segmenting texts, coding, and analyzing recurring themes, while manual coding processes and primary and secondary data comparisons inform the data analysis. Key findings reveal that rituals associated with birth and marriage, often deemed superstitions, have logical and scientific explanations. However, despite scientific clarity, myths persist, and science itself becomes a platform for new beliefs. The study emphasizes the limitations of science in addressing humanity's challenges, suggesting a focus on individual actions over blind faith in science. The research advocates for educational initiatives to raise awareness, urging governments to introduce programs in schools that foster scientific literacy and critical evaluation of traditional practices, contributing to a more informed and rational society.

Producing Locally Causal Explanations in Qualitative Research by Using a Realist Phenomenological Methodology

This article argues that qualitative researchers should focus more attention on producing locally causal explanations for social phenomena. To enable qualitative researchers to achieve this goal, this paper introduces a novel, step-by-step methodology for analysing qualitative data called the ‘Realist Phenomenological Method’. The Realist Phenomenological Method does not represent a novel philosophical insight because several studies have already adopted a realistic phenomenological approach in a philosophical context. Rather, this article’s novelty lies in its methodological contribution. The introduction of the Realist Phenomenological Method marks an advancement in qualitative research because it is the first formalized analytical methodology to merge methods inspired by critical realism and descriptive phenomenology. Furthermore, this method represents an advancement in qualitative research due to it enabling qualitative researchers to produce causal explanations for social phenomena. This advancement has important implications for qualitative researchers who aim to influence public policy, as any public policymaker who wants to suggest how a social problem can be addressed must first possess an awareness of what is causing the problem. This article begins by introducing the need for a new outlook on causality in qualitative research and outlining how inspiration has been taken from critical realism and descriptive phenomenology in designing the Realist Phenomenological Method. The step-by-step methodology of the Realist Phenomenological Method is then introduced, and an account is provided of how this novel methodology can advance understandings around causal explanations in qualitative research and social science. Interview extracts taken from the author’s doctoral dissertation are then used to frame each stage of the Realist Phenomenological Method and demonstrate how the method can be implemented effectively. The paper concludes that the Realist Phenomenological Method can be useful to both qualitative researchers and policymakers who aim to address social issues through effectively identifying the causes of such problems.

'Almost nothing is firmly established': A History of Heredity and Genetics in Mental Health Science.

For more than a century, scientists have tried to find the key to causation of mental ill health in heredity and genetics. The difficulty of finding clear and actionable answers in our genes has not stopped them looking. This history offers important context to understanding mental health science today. This article explores the main themes in research on genetics and inheritance in psychiatry from the second half of the nineteenth century to the present day, to address the question: what is the history of genetics as a causative explanation in mental health science? We take a critical historical approach to the literature, interrogating primary and secondary material for the light it brings to the research question, while considering the social and historical context. We begin with the statistics gathered in asylums and used to 'prove' the importance of heredity in mental ill health. We then move through early twentieth century Mendelian models of mental inheritance, the eugenics movement, the influence of social psychiatry, new classifications and techniques of the postwar era, the Human Genome Project and Genome Wide Association Studies (GWAS) and epigenetics. Setting these themes in historical context shows that this research was often popular because of wider social, political and cultural issues, which impacted the views of scientists just as they did those of policymakers, journalists and the general public. We argue that attempting to unpick this complex history is essential to the modern ethics of mental health and genetics, as well as helping to focus our efforts to better understand causation in mental ill-health.For a succinct timeline of the history of psychiatric genetics, alongside the history of other proposed causes for mental ill-health, visit: https://historyofcauses.co.uk/.

Aprendendo a construir explicações científicas: uma análise do cotidiano da sala de aula de ciências

ABSTRACT This paper analyzes how 8th graders proposed and revised explanations for a phenomenon in Science lessons. Guided by Ethnography in Education, we gathered data from observations of the daily life of these lessons and analyzed connections between texts, contexts and events. The results indicate the teacher’s role on the provisional and uncertain character given to scientific explanations; the use of discussions - sometimes in groups, sometimes with the whole class - as a resource through which students validated (or not) their explanations; and the interpretations given by students to the relationships between data and explanations under construction. These resources shaped the practices of proposing/reviewing explanations, which were evidenced by changes in explanatory proposals throughout events. The study offers contributions to the research area of Science Education and implications for pedagogical practice.

Fatores explicativos do suicídio pela visão indígena: uma revisão de literatura

Abstract Objective Indigenous suicide in Brazil is an epidemiological, complex, and multifactorial phenomenon for which conclusive answers to risk factors remain elusive. Based on a literature review, the objective is to identify factors that contribute to the phenomenon of suicide from the perspective of Indigenous people. Method The PRISMA model was employed, and literature was sought in the Scientific Electronic Library Online, Literatura Latino-Americana e do Caribe em Ciências da Saúde, and the Periódicos Capes databases between August and November 2022, utilizing the Portuguese descriptors “indígena AND suicídio” (indigenous AND suicide), “índio AND suicídio” (indian AND suicide), and “indígena OR suicídio OR Brasil” (indigenous OR suicide OR Brazil). Results The search yielded 235 articles, and after applying exclusion and inclusion criteria, 14 were retained. These articles formed the basis for identifying several categories which indicate the explanatory factors of indigenous people’s suicide, the first three of which are shared with Western scientific explanations: loss of “good living”, especially among young people; alcohol consumption; abandonment of Indigenous traditions; symbolic universe and myths; witchcraft and harm; and collective suicide. Conclusion Our analysis critiques the exclusively Western perspective and psychological approach, emphasizing the need to embrace Indigenous perspectives on this phenomenon.

ЭВОЛЮЦИЯ И КОНСТИТУИРОВАНИЕ ПРИНЦИПОВ РЕАЛИЗАЦИИ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫХ ЗАКУПОК В РОССИЙСКОЙ ПРАКТИКЕ

The research is aimed at studying the historical process of formulation and legislative consolidation of the principles of public procurement implemented in Russian practice. The empirical base of the study is based on the provisions of the federal law of April 5, 2013. No. 44-FZ “On the contract system in the field of procurement of goods, works, and services to meet state and municipal needs” and a retrospective analysis of the conditions under which the formation and constitution of the rules of participation established by the state in the system of participation of suppliers of goods, works and services in the mechanism of satisfying the requests and needs of the state mechanism, taking into account socio-economic and the technological development of the country and the mechanism of material and economic support for the performance of the functions assigned to it by the state. The scientific novelty of the research lies in the author’s approach to the formulation of evolutionarily emerging and accepted principles of public procurement based on the multiplicity of scientific explanations of the nature of public procurement activities and the definition of the main characteristics of public procurement. Separate elements of the scientific novelty of the study are the definition of the logic of the constitution of certain evolutionary principles of public procurement and their consolidation in the current Russian legislation on public procurement, as well as a comparative analysis of the compliance of evolutionary and regulatory principles of public procurement. The scientific contribution of the authors is to substantiate the evolutionary logic of the formation of modern legislative support for public procurement activities and to assess the prospects for its further improvement. The result of the study was a comparative analytical correspondence of the evolutionary and regulatory principles of public procurement activities and a forecast of the promising conditions for the functioning of the public procurement sector and its change in the norms of legislative support for public procurement activities.

SUBJECT COMPETENCE IN STUDENTS FROM SPECIALIZED SCHOOLS WITH ACCELERATED CURRICULA AS A PREREQUISITE FOR DEVELOPING FUNCTIONAL LITERACY

The development of functional literacy of students from specialized schools is currently relevant. The aim of the study is to analyze the process of development of functional literacy and its component of natural science literacy in chemistry lessons in the conditions of implementation of shortened curricula in specialized general education schools of the Republic of Kazakhstan. The scientific achievements of foreign and Kazakh scientists on the identified problems were studied, on the basis of which conclusions were made about the need to use the capabilities of the activity methodology. This necessity is a consequence of the observed transformation of the education system in the country. The content of normative documents regulating the system of general secondary education is also analyzed, according to which the chemistry teacher has the right to independently determine the number of hours allocated to study, which gives the teacher of a specialized school the opportunity to independently decide on the choice of ways to develop special competencies of students within their subject. The requirements to the tasks for assessing the level of science literacy were studied, and as a result, the necessity of defining the competence-skill as a parameter of competence was revealed. A table of matching skills (competencies) corresponding to tasks with a description of their characteristics was derived. It is concluded that it is possible to develop tasks that would ensure the development of competencies that include: scientific explanation of phenomena, understanding of the features of scientific research.

Learning to construct scientific explanations: an analysis of everyday life in the Science classroom

RESUMO Esta pesquisa analisa como estudantes de uma turma do oitavo ano do Ensino Fundamental propuseram e revisaram explicações para um fenômeno em aulas de ciências. Orientados pela Etnografia em Educação, construímos dados com base em observações do cotidiano dessa turma e analisamos conexões entre textos, contextos e eventos. Os resultados indicam o papel do professor sobre o caráter provisório e incerto conferido às explicações científicas; o uso de discussões - ora em grupo, ora com toda a turma - como recurso por meio do qual os estudantes validaram (ou não) suas explicações; além das interpretações dadas pelos estudantes às relações entre dados e explicações em construção. Esses recursos deram forma às práticas de propor/revisar explicações, o que foi evidenciado por mudanças nas propostas explicativas ao longo dos eventos. O estudo oferece contribuições à área de pesquisa de Educação em Ciências e implicações para a prática pedagógica.

On the Role of Scientific Evidence in Normative Ethics (the Case of the Debunking of Deontological Principles)

The paper deals with the questions of whether naturalization of ethical theory is possible and how radical it should be. The answer to these questions depends largely on the scientific explanations of the process of moral evaluation. The author concentrates on a moderate version of naturalization, which involves merely correcting the conclusions of normative ethics by appealing to scientific evidence. A good example of moderate naturalization is the project of debunking deontological moral principles of J. Green. From J. Green’s point of view, the most important of such principles (“it is impermissible to harm other people as a means of achieving a utilitarian goal, but it is permissible to cause such harm as a side-effect of its achievement”) reflects the functioning of the emotional alarm system, which in the early ages of human history protected small groups from internal violence using contact means of harm. The means of harm have since expanded, but the inflexible emotional part of our psyche still dictates the limits of permissibility. This dictate has no reasonable grounds, and the abovementioned principle cannot claim to be objective and universal. The author shows that the data used by J. Green is different from the results of studies by Yu.I. Aleksandrov and K.R. Arutyunova on the impact of alcohol intoxication on making deontological and utilitarian moral evaluations. These results indicate that both the deontological and the utilitarian principles are partly based on the emotional subsystem. Accordingly, a normative ethicist is forced to choose as the scientific basis of his or her research some of the opposing scientific models that explain the process of making moral evaluations. Some of the models are consistent with the moderate naturalization project, others are not. The choice between models depends exclusively on already taken metaethical and normative preferences.

The social science perspective on the Fermi paradox

Abstract The Fermi paradox points to the apparent contradiction between the idea that the emergence of life and civilization on Earth is an objective process following the general rules of Nature and that there are no visible signs of other civilizations beyond Earth. The Fermi paradox is widely discussed in astronomical, biological and other natural sciences but almost totally ignored by social sciences, even though more than half of known explanations deal with intentions and behaviours of extraterrestrial civilizations (ETCs) or social aspects of the evolution of technological civilizations. The article analyses the problem and possible solutions to the Fermi paradox from the perspective of social sciences. In this article I argue that the Fermi paradox is primarily a social science problem, and the most plausible solutions have to contain some form of social science explanations. Three types of explanations are discussed, namely, those related to ETCs’ intentions, capacities and the consequences of their decisions and activities. I argue that attempts to explain the paradox by referring to specific goals and motives of ETCs are the least plausible. Arguments related to the capacities and consequences are more solid but do not convincingly solve the paradox. I conclude that the Fermi paradox is an important problem for social sciences whether ETCs exist or not, and it should attract greater attention from social scientists.

계산적 인지과학의 관점에서 바라본 과학적 설명

This paper introduces the process of explanation in computational cognitive science, which involves elucidating why phenomena or events occur within the framework of causal relationships. It highlights the similarity between everyday explanations and scientific explanations when examined through the lens of cognitive processes, noting that scientific explanations are more systematic, rigorous, and precise.
 The three crucial stages of explanation discussed are firstly gathering information to provision the system's structure, secondly generating hypotheses to advance the explanation, and thirdly evaluating competitive hypotheses or explanations. The paper goes on to introduce the computational implementation of cognitive science frameworks for scientific explanation through deductive, probabilistic, and neural network approaches.
 In the deductive approach, the discussion revolves around Hempel's (1965, 1966) explanatory model, illustrating its simulation as a rule-based system when given laws and conditions. The probabilistic approach, primarily utilizing Bayesian networks, is shown to involve tasks such as generating hypotheses and assessing suitable hypotheses through conditional probabilities. Similarly, the neural network theoretical approach demonstrates that hypothesis generation or explanation through identifying causes can occur through the interaction of neural cells.
 Notably, one significant advantage of neural network theory is its ability to perform abductive inference or hypothesis generation not only based on linguistic expressions but also by accepting visual, emotional, and non-linguistic information as inputs and producing non-linguistic outputs. This advantage is ultimately seen as the ability to accommodate a variety of expression forms, termed as a "multi-modal mode."

Political and security instability and its effects on foreign investment: with reference to Iraq's experience after 2003

The research deals with the conceptual framework of political and security stability and foreign investment, the theoretical framework for the impact of political and security stability on foreign investment, and the practical aspect that affected political and security stability on foreign investment in Iraq for the period 2003-2021. The research aims to explain the reasons for the modest levels of foreign investment in Iraq and the fluctuation of its flows. Since 2003 and studying the causes of this imbalance, and among these reasons the security and political instability for the period under study, the Iraqi society was chosen as a sample for the research, and simple statistical tools were used in the analysis. The measurement method (SPSS) and linear programming were excluded because the results obtained are negative and do not explain Scientific explanation of the relationship between the two variables. Therefore, the method of direct analysis was resorted to through the tables obtained related to the index of political and security instability, and the results were positive and depended on solid scientific facts.
 On the outside world and then lift the economic sanctions imposed on Iraq, and the issuance of the investment law for the year 2006 had a great impact in encouraging the flow of foreign investment to Iraq. Although these flows are still modest and weak, and most of them are in the oil sector, and what indicates the obstacles to foreign investment are the security and political instability and cases of administrative and financial corruption were among the reasons that prevented the provision of an appropriate investment climate capable of attracting foreign investments. And the research recommended that Political stability is an attractive factor for foreign investors to invest their money inside the country because stability is one of the important elements for the investor and the economy of Iraq must be developed because Iraq’s economy is a one-sided renter economy that depends on oil and the development of the rest of the sectors to advance the economic reality and build a strong state. The instability index is considered one of the dangerous and important indicators, and due to the fluctuations of government systems and their unstable policies in recent times, this has led to a deterioration in conditions and a decrease in the demand for invest.

Metaphysics of Extraordinary Events

How can an event be extraordinary? What is the metaphysical background necessary to believe that extraordinary events are possible? The possibility of extraordinary events can be approached from metaphysical, epistemic, and scientific perspectives. Metaphysical explanations are extraordinary events that transcend nature or violate the regular structure in nature. Epistemological explanations, on the other hand, are explanations of extraordinary events by referring either to our lack of knowledge about nature or to our inadequacy of knowledge about events. Scientific explanations recognize phenomena that have been observed or experimented on but have not yet been explained by any theory. In this article, I focus on metaphysical and epistemological explanations. We see that three basic assumptions are used for a metaphysical explanation: 1) There must be an orderly operation called Nature. 2) The process in nature can be violated. 3) There is a compatibility between the mind and the world. With the adoption of these three assumptions by different philosophers in various combinations, two kinds of metaphysical explanations arise: extraordinary as supernatural and extraordinary by appealing to the principle of sufficient reason.
 According to the first type of explanation, extraordinary events are events caused by what is beyond nature, exceeding nature, or violating the workings of nature. In order to explain extraordinary events with the supernatural, there is a need to violate the metaphysical necessities on which nature is based, such as the principle of causality. An approach represented by philosophers such as St. Augustine, al-Ghazālī, Richard Swinburne, and Nazif Muhtaroğlu claims that it is possible for a supernatural event to occur, claiming that the functioning of nature is not necessary. But if there is no metaphysical necessity in nature such as the principle of causality, how can an extraordinary event violate anything? Both Swinburne and St. Augustine answer this question with the argument that the principle of causality is effective in nature and that principle can be violated by God, a supernatural power. Al-Ghazālī and Muhtaroğlu, on the other hand, prefer not to accept the effectiveness of causality in the functioning of nature. Thus, all activity in nature will be attributed to God, and extraordinary events will gain the same status as ordinary events. The point that unites these views is the belief that the operation in nature is not necessary, with or without causality. Philosophers with this belief could not successfully explain extraordinary events because they could not ground their understanding of nature and the supernatural. Moreover, when we analyze their approach to the problem, we see that ordinary and extraordinary events cannot be separated from each other, since no other principle is put forward to replace the principle of causality.
 The second type of explanation is the explanation of extraordinary events by applying the principle of sufficient reason. The philosophers represented by Ibn Sînâ and Leibniz consider it necessary both metaphysically and epistemologically that everything in nature needs sufficient reason to come to be. According to them, no event can take place without sufficient cause. In this respect, there must be sufficient reason for extraordinary events to occur as well as ordinary ones. Both philosophers argue that extraordinary events are metaphysically possible events in nature, but their occurrence does not violate principles such as causality. According to this type of explanation, extraordinary events are not supernatural. Ibn Sînâ, using the concept of nature in its metaphysical sense, argued that forces beyond matter are also effective in nature. Meanwhile, he maintained the necessity of the causality principle. In this way, it is possible to have previously unknown results from known causes. For example, the human soul can affect different bodies through celestial realms, just as it affects its own body. However, this interaction does not violate the necessity of the causality principle, on the contrary, it means the discovery of the necessary structure of nature. In short, the epistemological approaches of Leibniz and Ibn Sînâ, which they developed while preserving the metaphysical necessity of causation, do not require denying extraordinary events without examining them, but also offer a stronger basis for the possibility of extraordinary events, as they expand the limits of our knowledge of nature.

Pseudo-Mysterianism of Colin McGinn

Colin McGinn claims that there is a naturalistic solution of the mind-body problem, but it is not constructive. That is, according to him, there is a natural and simple explanation of consciousness-brain interaction; however, because of our limited cognitive capacity we can never specify the link between the mind and the brain. Scientific explanation of the problem cannot be possible, so solution of the consciousness problem will remain an epistemic mystery for human beings. McGinn’s theory which is the basis of his mysterianism, is called Transcendental Naturalism (TN), and he formulates this theory with three main arguments. The main purpose of this work is to reveal that McGinn's arguments are baseless and that his mysterianism is pseudo-mysterianism. To achieve this purpose, I will discuss TN by respectively analyzing his three main arguments and their problematic aspects. Firstly, I will draw attention to McGinn’s first argument – I will call it “(i) the argument for naturalism.” Secondly, I will draw attention to the second argument which I will call “(ii) the argument for closure,” and I will show that McGinn’s cognitive closure idea on which epistemic mystery of consciousness is mainly based is also problematic. After briefly explaining his last argument which I will call “(iii) the argument for dissolution,” at the end of this work, I will have manifested that (i)-(iii) are not a satisfactory triad to leave the problem of consciousness to dark side, and McGinn’s mysterianism is pseudo-mysterianism.