Explanatory Approaches Research Articles

The PRECIS-2 tool has good interrater reliability and modest discriminant validity

ObjectivesPRagmatic Explanatory Continuum Indicator Summary (PRECIS)-2 is a tool that could improve design insight for trialists. Our aim was to validate the PRECIS-2 tool, unlike its predecessor, testing the discriminant validity and interrater reliability. Study Design and SettingOver 80 international trialists, methodologists, clinicians, and policymakers created PRECIS-2 helping to ensure face validity and content validity. The interrater reliability of PRECIS-2 was measured using 19 experienced trialists who used PRECIS-2 to score a diverse sample of 15 randomized controlled trial protocols. Discriminant validity was tested with two raters to independently determine if the trial protocols were more pragmatic or more explanatory, with scores from the 19 raters for the 15 trials as predictors of pragmatism. ResultsInterrater reliability was generally good, with seven of nine domains having an intraclass correlation coefficient over 0.65. Flexibility (adherence) and recruitment had wide confidence intervals, but raters found these difficult to rate and wanted more information. Each of the nine PRECIS-2 domains could be used to differentiate between trials taking more pragmatic or more explanatory approaches with better than chance discrimination for all domains. ConclusionWe have assessed the validity and reliability of PRECIS-2. An elaboration study and web site provide guidance to help future users of the tool which is continuing to be tested by trial teams, systematic reviewers, and funders.

The Load of Injustice: A Longitudinal Analysis of the Impact of Subjectively Perceived Income Injustice on the Risk of Stress-Associated Diseases Based on the German Socio-Economic Panel Study

Income injustice is regarded as a psychosocial strain and associated with an increased risk of stress-related diseases. The physiological stress response is thereby considered as a central link. The aim of the study is to reveal the influence of subjectively perceived income injustice on stress-associated diseases, taking into consideration the load duration. Based on the German Socio-Economic Panel Study, data on 5,657 workers in the survey years 2005-2013 were analyzed. The dependent variable reflect the doctor's diagnosed new cases of diabetes, asthma, cardiopathy, stroke, hypertension and depression in the years 2009-2013 as an index. Key predictor is the injustice perception of one's income. In order to operationalize the duration of the injustice perception, the values of the variable for the years 2005, 2007 and 2009 were accumulated. Using logit models, stratified for gender and volume of employment, factors were identified that affect the probability of stress-related diseases. If income was perceived as unjust for over 5 years, the odds of stress-related diseases were strongly enhanced for women (OR 1.64; 95% CI 1.17-2.30). Women working full-time seemed to be particularly affected (OR 2.43; 95% CI 1.54-3.84). Men working full-time perceiving their income as unjust also showed an increased risk for stress diseases (OR 1.43; CI 1.03-1.98). The more often income was assessed as unjust, the higher was the probability of stress-related diseases. Perceived income injustice seems to be a significant risk factor for stress-related diseases within a dose-response relationship with increasing duration of exposure. Findings of stress research indicate that this represents the 'allostatic load'. Gender-specific differences in stress reaction as well as in the appraisal of the stressors can be associated with gender-specific work and life conditions and therefore provide explanatory approaches for the revealed effects.

Good Use of a \u2018Bad\u2019 Metaphor

Entropy is often introduced to students through the use of the disorder metaphor. However, many weaknesses and limitations of this metaphor have been identified, and it has therefore been argued that it is more harmful than useful in teaching. For instance, under the influence of the disorder metaphor, students tend to focus on spatial configuration with regard to entropy but disregard the role of energy, which may lead their intuition astray in problem solving. Albeit so, a review of research of students’ ideas about entropy in relation to the disorder metaphor shows that students can use the metaphor in developing a more nuanced, complex view of the concept, by connecting entropy as disorder to other concepts such as microstates and spreading. The disorder metaphor—in combination with other explanatory approaches—can be used as a resource for learning, in giving students an early flavour of what entropy means, so long as we acknowledge its limitations; we can put this “bad” metaphor to good use in teaching.

Delusions: current psychodynamic and neurocognitive approaches

The symptom "delusions" is acentral psychopathological symptom in psychiatric diseases. Since the beginning of psychiatry various disciplines have attempted to explain and understand delusions but even now no generally accepted definition of this phenomenon exists. Acomprehensive review of current psychopathological and neurobiological theories of delusions is given. PubMed and Google scholar searches were performed using the keywords "delusion", "psychodynamic" and "neurobiology", both in English and German. Relevant German textbooks of psychiatry were also included. A differentiated perspective of the phenomenon of delusions appears to be necessary to approach this complex and fascinating symptom. A one-dimensional approach does not do justice to the complexity of delusions. The various explanatory approaches can increasingly be linked to each other and are no longer considered to be mutually exclusive.

Niche construction and optimal foraging theory in Neotropical agricultural origins: A re-evaluation in consideration of the empirical evidence

The various theoretical approaches advanced over the past 50 years to explain the origins of agriculture have prompted much discussion and debate. Most recently, controversy has arisen concerning the utility of two Darwinian approaches; namely, cultural niche construction (CNC) and human behavioral ecology-derived optimal foraging theory (OFT). Recent papers advocate for the primacy of cultural niche construction, calling for optimal foraging approaches to be all but disregarded in the quest to explain how and why foragers became farmers (Smith, 2015, 2016; Zeder, 2015, 2016). In particular, it is claimed that archaeological, paleo-environmental, and paleontological evidence from the Neotropics of northern South America fail to meet predictions derived from OFT theory, while predictions said to be derived from CNC-based approaches are supported (Smith, 2015, 2016; Zeder, 2015). However, a number of misreadings of the northern South America evidence are made in those discussions, while some pertinent literature is not considered. In this paper we discuss these misreadings and provide a clear re-articulation of the original data and interpretations, finding support for OFT predictions. Our re-evaluations of OFT and CNC further suggest they can, in fact, be complimentary explanatory approaches.

Taking the Focus Away from the Self: Low Individualism Mediates the Effect of Oxytocin on Creativity

Recently, it has been shown that the hormone oxytocin can enable creative cognition. The aim of this investigation was to examine the psychological mechanism via which oxytocin influences creativity. Two opposing explanatory approaches suggested by previous research were investigated: It was predicted that the effect of oxytocin on creativity would be determined by low versus high individualism, especially in people with low levels of anxiety. Participants filled out an anxiety questionnaire and intranasally administered oxytocin or a placebo. After a 40-min waiting period, they performed a creativity task and indicated their level of individualism. Participants with low levels of anxiety showed heightened creative potential under oxytocin, and this relationship was mediated by low individualism. The results could not be explained by changes in the participants’ affective state. The findings underscore the moderating role of dispositional factors and reveal an important factor to understand the role of oxytocin in human behavior.

Applying the ‘Cognitive Bias Modification’ concept to smoking cessation – A Systematic Review

Abstract. Background: In recent years, new neurocognitive explanatory approaches such as dual-process theories offer significant progress in understanding long-term relapse in substance use disorders. Based on such explanatory concepts stemming from basic research, novel methods of intervention have been deduced which focus on directly changing cognitive biases. The efficacy of these Cognitive Bias Modification (CBM) concepts has been evaluated in a growing number of studies in the context of different substance use and addictive disorders. By now, there are also first findings for using CBM in the context of smoking. Objectives: To evaluate the empirical evidence, whether CBM qualifies i) for reducing attentional or approach bias towards smoking-related cues, ii) for effectively reducing the high relapse rates in smoking cessation, iii) for the reduction of smoking behaviour and iv) craving. Methods: The systematic evidence search has been carried out in clinical databases (Cochrane Library, PsycArticles, PSYNDEX, PsycINFO, Medline) as well as via manual reverse search. Finally, 12 studies have been identified which met the inclusion criteria (RCT, CBM interventions for smokers; outcomes: change in attentional or approach bias, craving, number of cigarettes smoked, abstinence). Results: Despite the heterogeneity of the studies in terms of sample selection, realisation of interventions and methodological aspects, the findings collectively indicate that different forms and ‘dosages’ of CBM interventions can influence attentional or approach bias in smokers. Also, positive effects on craving and motivation to quit could be detected. Effects on smoking behaviour are inconsistent and often statistically non-significant. First online applications showed encouraging results. Discussion: The results concerning the efficacy of CBM in smoking cessation are still rudimentary and inconsistent. However, a large portion of the studies was not conducted under naturalistic conditions, but rather in laboratories with non-treatment seekers or participants partially motivated to quit. Despite these limitations, the findings can be evaluated as encouraging. The results suggest that CBM will be implemented in routine care as an adjunct intervention within a behavioural therapy-oriented cessation programme. However, specific studies which assess the efficacy of CBM as a component for relapse prevention in smoking cessation intervention in routine care are still lacking.

The Middle-Income Trap: Definitions, Theories and Countries Concerned—A Literature Survey

In recent years, a growing body of economic literature has focused on the phenomenon of the so-called middle-income trap (MIT). The term usually refers to countries that have experienced rapid growth and thus quickly reached middle-income status, but then failed to overcome that income range to further catch up to the developed countries. This paper surveys the MIT literature. It begins by laying out different approaches to defining the MIT (with a focus on the distinction between absolute and relative approaches) and by presenting as well as classifying the most important empirical studies. After a short overview of the currently identified MIT countries, the article summarizes the main explanatory approaches, taking into account both the theoretical foundations and the empirically identified triggering factors.

Variability in amino acid digestibility of wheat grains from diverse genotypes examined in caecectomised laying hens

Summary The consideration of amino acid (AA) digestibility during feed formulation for laying hens is a useful approach that could increase the efficiency of protein utilisation. However, for practical applications, thorough information about the level and variation of AA digestibility, both between and within utilized feed components, is necessary. Approaches to rapidly predict AA digestibility under practical conditions are also needed. Wheat grains are typically used at high levels in the diets of laying hens, so they are an important AA source. Nevertheless, systematic studies investigating the AA digestibility of wheat grain in hens are scarce. Therefore, the objective of the present study was to determine the AA digestibility of 20 wheat genotypes, and to examine relationships between AA digestibility and the physical and chemical characteristics of the grains. Wheat genotypes were grown under standardised conditions within the collaborative research project GrainUp, and were comprehensively analysed based on their physical and chemical characteristics. Additionally, the in vitro solubility of nitrogen found in the wheat grains was determined. The 20 wheat genotypes were added to a basal diet at the expense of maize starch at 500Â g/kg to produce 20 wheat diets. The experimental design comprised four Latin Squares (6 × 6), which were equally distributed over two runs (resulting in 12 experimental periods). Caecectomised laying hens (LSL-Classic) were individually housed in metabolism cages, and were fed the respective experimental diets for eight days per period. During the last four days per period, excreta were collected quantitatively, and feed intake was recorded. Amino acid digestibility of the added wheat genotypes was calculated using a linear regression approach. The digestibility of all examined AA varied significantly between wheat genotypes, but digestibility was high overall. The largest differences between the extreme genotypes were observed in Met and Lys with 23 and 18 percentage points, respectively. Chemical and physical characteristics as well as the in vitro solubility of nitrogen significantly correlated with AA digestibility only in a few cases. Multiple linear regression analyses were used to predict AA digestibility based on the grain characteristics. The explanatory power of the equations (adjusted R²) was below 0.7 for most AA across the variable pools, so precision of the method does not warrant its use during feed formulation. Several explanatory approaches for the missing relationships are presented and discussed.

Differences in the Frequency of Use of Epidural Analgesia between Immigrant Women of Turkish Origin and Non-Immigrant Women in Germany - Explanatory Approaches and Conclusions of a Qualitative Study.

Introduction: The starting point of this study was the considerably lower rate of epidural analgesia use among women of Turkish origin in Germany compared to non-immigrant women in the German Research Foundation (DFG)-funded study entitled "Perinatal Health and Migration Berlin". The study aimed to identify possible differences in the women's attitudes towards epidural analgesia. Methods: Exploratory study with semi-structured interviews, interviews lasting 17 minutes on average were conducted with 19 women of Turkish origin and 11 non-immigrant women at a Berlin hospital. The interviews were subjected to a qualitative content analysis. Results: Immigrant women of Turkish origin in Germany more frequently ascribe meaning to the pain associated with vaginal delivery. They more frequently categorically reject the use of epidural analgesia, 1) for fear of long-term complications such as paralysis and back pain and 2) based on the view that vaginal delivery with epidural analgesia is not natural. Information on epidural analgesia is frequently obtained from a variety of sources from their social setting, in particular, by word of mouth. The women in both groups stated that they would take the decision to use epidural analgesia independent of their partner's opinion. Discussion: The differences in epidural analgesia use rates observed correspond to the women's attitudes. For the immigrant women of Turkish origin in Germany, the attitude towards using epidural analgesia is based in part on misinformation. In order to enable the women to make an informed decision, epidural analgesia could receive a stronger focus during childbirth courses.

Crowding out or no crowding out? A Self-Determination Theory approach to health worker motivation in performance-based financing

Performance-based financing (PBF) is a common health system reform approach in low and middle income countries at present. Although increasing evidence on the effectiveness of PBF and knowledge of principles of good design are available, research is still lacking in regards to other aspects. Among these are a yet limited understanding of the complex role of health worker motivation in PBF and of potential side effects, for instance on intrinsic motivation. Our article aims to support meaningful future research by advancing the theoretical discussion around health worker motivation and PBF. We argue that an in-depth understanding of the motivational mechanisms and consequences of PBF at health worker level are of high practical relevance and should be at the heart of the PBF research agenda, and that predominant unidimensional conceptualizations of health worker motivation and descriptive rather than explanatory research approaches are insufficient to fully understand whether, how, and why PBF schemes alter health workers' motivational structures, mindsets, affect, and behavior. We introduce and apply Self-Determination Theory to the context of PBF as a valuable theoretical framework for future empirical exploration. From this, we conclude that PBF interventions are unlikely to have a generally adverse effect on intrinsic motivation as feared by parts of the PBF community. Rather, we posit that PBF can have positive and negative effects on both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, to varying degrees depending on the specific design, implementation, and results of a particular intervention and on health workers’ perceptions and evaluations of it.

The Dualism of Contemporary Traditional Governance and the State

In many parts of the world, people live in “dual polities”: they are governed by the state and organize collective decision making within their ethnic community according to traditional rules. We examine the substantial body of works on the traditional–state dualism, focusing on the internal organization of traditional polities, their interaction with the state, and the political consequences of the dualism. We find the descriptions of the internal organization of traditional polities scattered and lacking comparative perspective. The literature on the interaction provides a good starting point for theorizing the strategic role of traditional leaders as intermediaries, but large potentials for inference remain underexploited. Studies on the consequences of “dual polities” for democracy, conflict, and development are promising in their explanatory endeavor, but they do not yet allow for robust conclusions. We therefore propose an institutionalist research agenda addressing the need for theory and for systematic data collection and explanatory approaches.

The Role of Judgment in Explanations of Politics

This paper explores the role of judgment in politics, the character of good political judgment and its ramifications for how we explain politics. It proceeds in four steps. The first section proposes a realist conception of political judgment: a distinct form of practical reasoning that highlights our imperfect capacity to grasp the actual causal relations of the world. The second section discusses the intellectual prerequisites of good political judgment: its deep contextualism, practical focus, conditional strategic orientation, synthetic vision and dispassionate spirit. I argue that these traits constitute a cognitive disposition that stands against styles of inquiry that privileges universal, theoretical, rationalistic, analytical and value-neutral political explanations that dominate many spheres of contemporary political science. The third section of the paper considers the conditions in which political judgment matters. I content that it varies according to the relative stability of specific political circumstances. The final section examines the various explanatory approaches that differentiate large-N statistical analyses, small-N comparative research, and intensive case studies. I argue that the failure of nomothetic theoretical accounts to take political judgment seriously limits their explanations of politics and mars their ability to improve the quality of our political judgment. Conversely, in-depth case studies and mid-range comparative analyses are more likely to perceive the role of judgment in explaining political outcomes and consequently more likely to improve our ability to judge well.

Modelling Melodic Discrimination Tests: Descriptive and Explanatory Approaches

Melodic discrimination tests have been used for many years to assess individual differences in musical abilities. These tests are usually analysed using classical test theory. However, classical test theory is not well suited for optimizing test efficiency or for investigating construct validity. This paper addresses this problem by applying modern item response modelling techniques to three melodic discrimination tests. First, descriptive item response modelling is used to develop a short melodic discrimination test from a larger item pool. The resulting test meets the test-theoretic assumptions of a Rasch (1960) item response model and possesses good concurrent and convergent validity as well as good testing efficiency. Second, an explicit cognitive model of melodic discrimination is used to generate hypotheses relating item difficulty to structural item features such as melodic complexity, similarity, and tonalness. These hypotheses are then tested on response data from three melodic discrimination tests () using explanatory item response modelling. Results indicate that item difficulty is predicted by melodic complexity and melodic similarity, consistent with the proposed cognitive model. This provides useful evidence for construct validity. This paper therefore demonstrates the benefits of item response modelling both for efficient test construction and for test validity.

Investigating the true costs of construction accidents

Purpose The construction industry contributes significantly to national economic growth and offers substantial opportunities for job creation; however, the industry has continually been plagued by workplace accidents. Moreover, employers may not realize the economic magnitude of workplace injury and ill health arising from construction activities. These accidents represent a considerable economic and social burden to employers, employees and to the society as a whole. Despite governments and organisations worldwide maintaining an ongoing commitment towards establishing a working environment free of injury and disease, a great deal of construction accidents continues to frequent our society. The purpose of this study is to conduct an analysis of a sample of 100 construction accident reports to establish, as far as practically reasonable, the total costs of limited types of construction accidents. Costs attributable to each of these accidents were classified either as direct or indirect costs. Through an exhaustive and time-consuming investigation of all available records from various sources and/or kept in various departments, the individual costs were correlated to the various direct and indirect categories. Design/methodology/approach This particular study is a combination of explanatory and collective case study approaches, whereby causal effects are determined or a course of events is examined from multiple cases. The preferred form of data collection is left to the researcher to decide (Yin, 2003). When a researcher is considering “how” or “why” questions, a contemporary set of events using primary and secondary documents, over which the researcher has little or no control, the case study approach is feasible (Yin, 2009). Findings The costs of construction accidents for the same sample of 100 construction analysed in this study has been estimated at a staggering R32,981,200. Of this total, R10,087,350 has been attributed to direct costs and R22,893,850 has been attributed to indirect costs. The costs of construction accidents are based on four cost components: sick pay, administrative costs, recruitment costs and compensation and insurance costs. It should be noted that the estimates of the costs to employers presented in this study are reflective of the activities and incidents of the reviewed organisation and may not necessarily represent another organisation. The costs of construction accidents values presented in this study reveal that construction accidents present a substantial cost to employers and to the society at large, inclusive of both the direct and indirect costs. It is therefore in the best interest of the employer to identify progressive and advanced approaches to more effectively manage construction health and safety, consequently society at large will benefit tremendously. Originality/value Given the high rate of construction accidents experienced, employers are not entirely mindful of the actual costs of construction accidents, especially when considering the hidden or indirect costs of accidents. Various safety research efforts have attempted to quantify the true costs of worker injuries; however, localised systematic information on cost of construction accidents at work is not readily available from administrative statistical data sources; therefore, this study was carried out to estimate the costs, like lost workdays or lost income, are clearly visible and can readily be expressed in monetary value; for a large part,0 however, economic consequences of accidents are somewhat hidden.

Risk factors and prevention of aggressive behavior in children and adolescents

Contrary to often very simplified explanatory approaches published in the media, the ongoing research takes into account a multi-causal framework and different developmental processes with respect to the causes of aggressive behavior. Meanwhile, a bio-psycho-social model has been established which broadly describes the conditions correlating with the development of aggressive behavior. In addition to the developmental risk and the protective factors listed in this model, situative factors such as provocation, special incentives, ownership of weapons and other provoking factors are also decisive. In accordance with the broad range of developmental and triggering factors, numerous interventions and most of all preventive programs are suggested to reduce aggressive behavior. One of the most intensively evaluated and internationally known prevention programs is “Faustlos” (“without fists”). This article outlines evaluation outcomes, content and structure of the Faustlos-curriculum. The text also summarizes the risk and protective factors for aggressive behavior in children and adolescents.

Typologies in Comparative Vocational Education: Existing Models and a New Approach

The ways in which vocational education and training (VET) systems are structured vary significantly from country to country, both because different countries have different objectives for their VET systems and because VET is differently embedded within the education and labour market systems of any individual country. International research in this area makes use of a range of existing typologies to characterise and compare VET systems. However, many of these typologies have weaknesses, for example in relation to the consistency of their descriptive criteria or the extent to which the typology is able to tackle more complex VET systems. This paper therefore takes a multi-perspective approach to developing a new typology that builds on existing approaches from a range of disciplines, justifies a specific combination of these approaches, and substantially expands on them. Specifically, it combines a skill formation approach with both a stratification approach and a standardisation approach. It also explicitly acknowledges the practice of learning as a criterion. This new typology enables VET systems in a range of countries to be categorised systematically across the different levels involved, including in relation to aspects as varied as government regulation, curriculum design, and teaching practices. This will be illustrated using six countries – China, France, Germany, India, Japan and the USA – as case studies. These case studies demonstrate substantial differences but also partial convergences between these countries. The typology offers both a framework for further explanatory approaches in individual country contexts and an opportunity for international comparison of key aspects of VET systems, such as the value attached to vocational qualifications and the possible transfer of VET models from one country to another.

The Middle-Income Trap Definitions, Theories and Countries Concerned: A Literature Survey

In recent years, a growing body of economic literature has focused on the phenomenon of the so-called middle-income trap (MIT). The term usually refers to countries that have experienced rapid growth and thus quickly reached middle-income status, but then failed to overcome that income range to further catch up to the developed countries. This paper surveys the MIT literature. It begins by laying out different approaches to defining the MIT (with a focus on the distinction between absolute and relative approaches) and by presenting as well as classifying the most important empirical studies. After a short overview of the currently identified MIT countries, the article summarizes the main explanatory approaches, taking into account both the theoretical foundations and the empirically identified triggering factors.

Normative, Structural, and Individual Factors that Predispose Adult Children to Provide Social Support to Their Elderly Parents

This study is based on a face-to-face survey, conducted in 2009, with a representative sample of adults who were aged 45 years or above, living in the urban area of Santiago, Chile. This survey examined the exchange network between adults and their elderly parents, focusing on two of the main explanatory approaches to supportive family interrelations. That is, the norms of filial obligation and reciprocity. The article also investigates factors associated with the structure of needs and opportunities, as well as the family structures of the adult children and their parents. By estimating logistic regression models with cluster-robust standard errors the reciprocity norm is found to be significant, whereas that for filial obligation is not. The estimated models show that receiving support from the parent is one of the main factors that predisposes the adult child to the provision of parental support. That is, such action is favored by incorporation in a network of reciprocal exchanges. Thus, intergenerational ties work in two directions: parents request help from their children but also give them help. The norm of filial obligation, on the other hand, is only significant in the case of women.

Integral gnosis and the material other

In this article, I look at Ken Wilber’s Integral Theory as mimesis. This invites me to look at Integral Theory in three ways. First, I look at Integral Theory as process of making materialistic alterity, thus maintaining and fortifying the spirituality of the self. Second, I look at it from the perspective of the dialectics of epistemologies of estrangement and intimacy, raising questions concerning the legitimacy of the juxtaposing interpretative and explanatory approaches to culture. Third, I look at it from a social perspective, as a powerful instance of modern mimesis that creates a typically modern history. I will show how Integral Theory is grounded in the modern intuition of agency being distinct from and superior to the outer material world. To the extent that cultural agency has to materialize in some form, so does Integral Theory. My aim is to recall the close relations of scientific discourse with spirituality, even with magic and even more importantly, I want to show how supposedly secular intuitions of identity and agency bear strong potential for spiritual and religious discourse.