Expert Project Management Research Articles

Effective Management of Construction Project Team: Identifying Team Composition Strategies and Criteria

This study delves into team composition within the construction industry, exploring its uniqueness amid the proven benefits of effective teamwork in productivity, innovation, and member satisfaction. Acknowledging the challenges arising from diverse workforces and projects-specific team requirements in construction, the research emphasizes the need for careful member selection to ensure project success. Focused on addressing gaps in understanding construction team management, the study aims to uncover fundamental elements crucial for steering these teams effectively. It endeavors to identify indispensable requisites by examining influential factors and criteria essential for creating an ideal team composition conducive to efficient management in construction. To achieve these goals, the study first reviewed the literature to distill critical criteria contributing to team effectiveness in various research fields. Subsequently, in-depth interviews with nine expert project managers and team members renowned for successful project leadership provided qualitative insights, which were analyzed thematically. The research identified three pivotal contributors to construction team effectiveness: Structured selection criteria and processes, qualifications, experience, and expertise, and finally, interpersonal skills and capabilities. These factors collectively shape a framework for optimizing construction team management, emphasizing the importance of systematic selection processes, relevant expertise, and critical interpersonal skills to foster collaborative team dynamics. This study illuminates the crucial components necessary for steering construction teams effectively, presenting insights valuable for refining industry practices and improving project outcomes. The study lays the groundwork for more efficient and successful construction project executions by bridging gaps in understanding the significance of member selection.

Learning Project management in organisations: a qualitative study on benefits for lifelong learning

Sustainable employability is a challenge to professional projection. The article explores how project management can support the sustainable employability of individuals through recontextualizing practice from organizational to educational environments, supporting the development of those transversal skills recognized as being connected to a lifelong learning mindset. The research approach was qualitative with an emergent design, structured in a first exploratory phase and a second explanatory one using case studies. Results relate to the core category "Learning Project management in informal contexts", topics of the exploratory phase, emerged from the analysis of experiences shared by expert project management professors with an average of 12 years of teaching experience in tertiary education institutions across five European countries and two Latin American ones. By examining the enabling and hindering factors within organizations, the article shows the role of project management in enhancing individuals’ employability through its integration within organizational contexts. This highlights its potential to foster innovative teaching approaches in higher education institutions and cultivate a lifelong learning mindset among students.

Digitalization of Technology for Expert Project Management of The School Environment Progression

The article presents the issues of school environment expertise and discusses the possibilities and prospects of using digital tooling for its assessment in mass educational practice and scientific research. The proposed method of vector modeling of the environment of personality development allows determining the activity of the individual in mastering educational resources in various types of environments. This digital tooling allows school management teams and organizational consultants to conduct management and pedagogical analysis of the current status and complementarity of various system components of school environments with each other, as well as with the school’s mission, and implement their managerial and vocational design; to develop programs for the progression of school organizations based on environment methodology using expert project management technology; to carry out organizational and pedagogical consulting of schools taking into account the “built-in” nature of environments of various levels (the environment of the lesson, class, club, school, and educational complex).

The role of cues in expert project manager sensemaking

Sensemaking forms the foundation of expertise as it comprises the initial stage of information processing that influences judgement and decision-making. Two related studies were undertaken to investigate the role of cues in the context of expert project management. First, a qualitative study was conducted using the critical incident technique and involving nine project managers who had successfully delivered projects. The data were analysed by identifying the critical incidents and the associated cues that were used as the basis of sensemaking in project-related situations. These cues converged into three categories: feedback, context cues and tacit knowledge. The second study examined the construct validity of the cues that emerged in Study 1 using a cue utilization scale that was administered through an online survey. There were 23 experienced project managers and 78 naïve participants who participated in the study. Differences in patterns of cue utilization were evident between the two cohorts based on the perceived levels of project complexity and project phases. The research outcomes offer empirical support for the relationship between cues and sensemaking in project management, and provide a basis for further research into the acquisition of sensemaking skills and the development of cue-based training initiatives to facilitate the progression towards expert project management.

Got (the Right) Milk? How a Blended Quality Improvement Approach Catalyzed Change

The expression, storage, preparation, fortification, and feeding of breast milk are common ongoing activities in many neonatal intensive care units (NICUs) today. Errors in breast milk administration are a serious issue that should be prevented to preserve the health and well-being of NICU babies and their families. This paper describes how a program to improve processes surrounding infant feeding was developed, implemented, and evaluated. The project team used a blended quality improvement approach that included the Model for Improvement, Lean and Six Sigma methodologies, and principles of High Reliability Organizations to identify and drive short-term, medium-term, and long-term improvement strategies. Through its blended quality improvement approach, the team strengthened the entire dispensation system for both human milk and formula and outlined a clear vision and plan for further improvements as well. The NICU reduced feeding errors by 83%. Be systematic in the quality improvement approach, and apply proven methods to improving processes surrounding infant feeding. Involve expert project managers with nonclinical perspective to guide work in a systematic way and provide unbiased feedback. Create multidisciplinary, cross-departmental teams that include a vast array of stakeholders in NICU feeding processes to ensure comprehensive examination of current state, identification of potential risks, and "outside the box" potential solutions. As in the realm of pharmacy, the processes involved in preparing feedings for critically ill infants should be carried out via predictable, reliable means including robust automated verification that integrates seamlessly into existing processes. The use of systems employed in pharmacy for medication preparation should be considered in the human milk and formula preparation setting.

Saudi Arabian Aviation Construction Projects: Identification of Risks and Their Consequences

Airport projects are considered to be very complex, as they face a number of challenges which inevitably expose them to risks. In Saudi Arabia, the aviation sector is considered an important sector due to the fact that Saudi Arabia is the first destination for Muslims on an annual basis. As a result, the Saudi government has allocated a significant amount of its general budget to this sector through the General Authority of Civil Aviation (GACA). However, it has been found that these projects are still delivered with a significant number of time and cost overruns. These consequences are typically generated from the risks involved in the projects. Thus, the aim of this paper was twofold: first, to identify risks associated with aviation construction projects in Saudi Arabia and, second, to evaluate the consequences of these risks on a number of GACA projects. Critical literature reviews of common risks associated with aviation projects have been carried out. These were followed by 13 semi-structured interviews with expert project managers, including clients, contractors and consultants who have been involved in GACA projects. As a result, 54 new risks have been identified and classified into three levels: internal, external and force majeure. Results have confirmed the existence of time and cost overruns for GACA projects. The significance of the identified risks is currently being assessed and will be reported in a further paper.

Identifying Attributes for Expert Construction Project Managers in the Context of China

The Construction Industry in one of the most booming industries in China at present. Like any other big industry, it has the competitions, the risks, and the complexities. Just a few decades ago, a Construction Project Manager (CPM) was not recognized with that significance. But with the industry becoming complicated, the job of CPM has become multi-dimensional, and there is an overall concern to improve their skills to make them fit for the changing scenario. Currently in China, the CPMs are categorized mainly through educational degrees. However, empirical observation suggests that there are several other tacit attributes a CPM needs to possess which can separate an expert one from an average one. A CPM needs to carry out many responsibilities on and off the site. In this study, the top responsibilities of CPMs were first identified through literature review. Then a survey was conducted on CPMs, with the respondents carefully chosen through conditional random sampling in the province of Shandong, one of the busiest provinces considering the construction sector. With several demographic criteria hypothesized to be those tacit predictors of expertise, a comparative statistical analysis was conducted by using Analytic Hierarchical Process (AHP) in order to identify certain determining attributes. The study suggested that such method can be helpful for the industry when there is a need for systematic search for suitable CPMs.

A review of enabling factors in construction industry productivity in an Australian environment

Purpose – The purpose of the research discussed in this paper is to ascertain the perception, from the project manager's viewpoint, of factors affecting construction productivity in the State of Queensland, Australia. Design/methodology/approach – The research was conducted by a structured questionnaire that was sent to 89 randomly selected construction project managers in Queensland, Australia. This questionnaire requested background information about the respondents and then sought a score, using a 0-4 Likert scale, from each of them with respect to the importance of 47 factors identified from the literature that were considered likely to affect construction productivity. The factors were stratified into primary factors and secondary factors contributing to three of the primary factors. There were 36 responses. These factors were rated by the respondents and then ranked using a relative importance index approach. Findings – The research evaluated the relative importance of the primary factors with respect to their effect on construction productivity. The 15 highest ranking factors are discussed. Three factors – rework, poor supervisor competency, and incomplete drawings – were ranked as having a strong effect on construction productivity. There was also an analysis of the secondary factors in relation to three of the primary factors. Research limitations/implications – The research focused on the State of Queensland in Australia. It had a response rate of 40 per cent. It provides insight into the factors affecting productivity on construction projects in Australia. Further research to investigate the identified factors in depth, using targeted interviews of expert project management professionals, is currently being undertaken. Practical implications – The construction industry can use the findings in this paper as a basis for improving the productivity of construction projects. Originality/value – This research is original research, which has highlighted a number of key areas of which construction productivity can be improved.

Re‐situating expert project managers' praxis within multiple logics of practice

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to consider how multiple logic systems employed by project managers lead to manifold understandings of two foundational project management constructs (“project” and “planning”) that in turn influence both the practice of project management and project outcomes.Design/methodology/approach – Largely conceptual in nature, this paper focuses on the language project managers use to make sense of projects and plans, seeking to get beyond the surface recitation of discourse to the underlying logic systems that influence practice. The discussion is illustrated with stories of practice, collected through interpretive phenomenological interviews with project managers perceived by their peers to demonstrate special skill or knowledge in successfully delivering projects, and reference to project management doctrine embedded in professional standards.Findings – Expert project managers use multiple thinking styles to adapt their practice to emergent project issues. While instrumen...

Automatic Risk Identification in Software Projects: an Approach based on Inductive Learning

Effective risk management is very important to increase the probability of success in software projects. Indeed, like other types of projects, software projects are also susceptible to various problems that can lead to the cancelation of their development or to the development of systems that do not meet the client’s requirements. One of the main active- ties of risk management is the risk identification, because the list of risks generated in this activity is used all along the risk control process. Thus, this work proposes the creation of an expert system which is capable of identifying risks in software projects by using the lessons inductively learned from similar software projects already developed. By using this proposed expert system, project managers and software developers must be able to avoid errors of the past.

Building wind farms: Part five: the precarious construction phase needs careful preparation

INSTALLING A turbine onto its foundation and completing final assembly can be done in a day, but the full job of constructing a wind farm involves a long list of civil engineering and electrical work. It can take anything from one to three years, and calls for expert project management skills. Once planning approval and project finance is secured, careful management of a complex series of engineering, logistical and electrical processes is vital. Whilst turbine suppliers busy themselves with getting the turbine of choice manufactured, pre-assembled and ready for shipping to site, the project developer needs to undertake extensive site preparation before the final build can even be contemplated: “They build access roads and clear the areas where turbines will be erected,” explains The Canadian Wind Energy Association. “They then prepare the foundations and do the excavating, followed by installing the formworks and pouring concrete.” Once all components have been received, final assembly and connection to the grid can take place:….

Framework of RFID-Based Infrastructure Project Quality Management Expert System

This paper presents a real time information tracing and monitoring expert system for the infrastructure project quality management with radio frequency identification (RFID) technology. This paper purposes to research the improvement of the real time information tracing method and the quality management in the infrastructure project. The paper studies and analyzes the advantages and issues of RFID technology and structures a RFID tracing system. Based on a value-focus-process (VFP) model of the project, a quality expert management system is built with the composition of RFID systems, VFP expert system and project management system. The VFP expert system inspects project quality by tracing the activities of the materials and members objectives in the project, and analyzes the information to determine the causes of abnormal and how to guarantee the quality. The VFP expert system also provides security schemes for the project to avoid risks. By utilizing RFID tracing technology, the project management system may be more effectively and sensitive with accidents than the traditional one. The paper finds that the quality management workflow in infrastructure project can be more visible and controllable with an RFID-based VFP expert system.

Introduction to the Special Issue—Flexible and Distributed Information Systems Development: State of the Art and Research Challenges

Process flexibility and globally distributed develop-ment are two major current trends in software andinformation systems development (ISD). The questfor flexibility is very much evident in the recent devel-opment and increasing acceptance of various agilemethods, such as eXtreme Programming (Beck andAndres 2005) and Scrum (Schwaber and Beedle 2002).Agile development methods are examples of appar-ently major success stories that seem to have runcounter to the prevailing wisdom in information sys-tems (IS) and software engineering. However, ratherthan being antimethod, agile approaches operate onthe principle of “just enough method.” The quest forflexibility is also apparent in the currently increasinginterest in striking a balance between the rigor of tra-ditional approaches and the need for adaptation ofthose approaches to suit particular development situ-ations. Although suitable methods may exist, devel-opers struggle in practice when selecting methodsand tailoring them to suit their needs. Certainly,agile methods are not exempt from this problem asthey too need to be flexibly tailored to the devel-opment context at hand (Fitzgerald et al. 2006a).Distributed development recognizes that, more andmore, ISD takes place in globally distributed settings.This is perhaps most evident in the many cases ofoffshoring and outsourcing of software developmentto low-cost countries (King and Torkzadeh 2008). Dis-tributed development places new demands on thedevelopment process through the increased complex-ity related to communication, coordination, cooper-ation, control, and culture, as well as to technologyand tools. Interestingly, many of the difficulties facedin globally distributed ISD are the same issues sur-faced by agile methods and development flexibility ingeneral.It is something of an irony that the special issuebefore us appears on the bicentenary of Darwin’sbirth. Evolutionary theory suggests that success andsurvival are not the preserve of the strongest nor themost intelligent. Rather, the ability to adapt to chang-ing circumstances is the key trait. Flexibility, one ofthe twin primary points of focus for this special issue,addresses this trait directly. A further parallel is thatDarwin’s theory of evolution was best exemplified bydifferences across different spatial locations. This isalso inherent in the second focal point for the specialissue dual focus—distributed development.

Knowledge management practices in project-based organisations

The paper aims to describe the difficulties in knowledge sharing in project management and suggest solutions to these difficulties. Following a review of knowledge sharing in the literature, workshops are conducted with expert project management practitioners in 2006; in addition, a questionnaire survey of the participants of the workshops is conducted. The study finds that Small- and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs) had different knowledge-sharing arrangements from those of Multinational Corporations (MNCs). The work of SMEs was more likely to be based on company-level knowledge sharing and the commitment of employees to projects was less marked. SMEs did not use formal project management systems to manage their projects; rather, they relied on the knowledge of individuals. In all of the companies studied, the most important challenges were cultural – how managers enable learning and how people can learn from mistakes most effectively. The structural factors in Knowledge Management (KM) were also of impor...

Internal OR Consulting: Effective Practice in a Changing Environment

Around 1970 some 96 percent of the largest Fortune-500 companies had established OR groups. The recessions of the '70s and '80s led many to close their groups. In 1993, the UK OR Society, disturbed by further closures, funded a study to identify factors that influenced the success and survival of internal OR groups. The study team found three categories of factors: changes in the external environment, in the organization, and in the OR group's management. This research shows that to be effective, an OR group needs good consulting skills, expert project management, active marketing of its services, and responsiveness to changes in its clients' requirements and in the surrounding organizational culture.

Internal OR Consulting: Effective Practice in a Changing Environment

AboutSectionsView PDF ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints ShareShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InEmail Go to Section HomeInterfacesVol. 30, No. 5 Internal OR Consulting: Effective Practice in a Changing EnvironmentRobert Fildes, John RanyardRobert Fildes, John RanyardPublished Online:1 Oct 2000https://doi.org/10.1287/inte.30.5.34.1638AbstractAround 1970 some 96 percent of the largest Fortune-500 companies had established OR groups. The recessions of the '70s and '80s led many to close their groups. In 1993, the UK OR Society, disturbed by further closures, funded a study to identify factors that influenced the success and survival of internal OR groups. The study team found three categories of factors: changes in the external environment, in the organization, and in the OR group's management. This research shows that to be effective, an OR group needs good consulting skills, expert project management, active marketing of its services, and responsiveness to changes in its clients' requirements and in the surrounding organizational culture. Previous Back to Top Next FiguresReferencesRelatedInformationCited byThe Value Paradox of Problem Structuring Methods2 October 2018 | Systems Research and Behavioral Science, Vol. 36, No. 4Reassessing the scope of OR practice: The Influences of Problem Structuring Methods and the Analytics MovementEuropean Journal of Operational Research, Vol. 245, No. 1Operational research and critical systems thinking—an integrated perspective21 December 2017 | Journal of the Operational Research Society, Vol. 63, No. 9Content analysis of OR job advertisements to infer required skills21 December 2017 | Journal of the Operational Research Society, Vol. 61, No. 9A profile of OR research and practice published in the Journal of the Operational Research Society21 December 2017 | Journal of the Operational Research Society, Vol. 61, No. 1Content Analysis of O.R. Job Advertisements to Infer Required SkillsSSRN Electronic Journal, Vol. 23Perspective on Decision Analysis ApplicationsInterdisciplinary Collaborative Learning: Using Decision Analysts to Enhance Undergraduate International Management Education23 July 2016 | Journal of Management Education, Vol. 28, No. 2Perspective on Decision Analysis Applications, 1990–2001Donald L. Keefer, Craig W. Kirkwood, James L. Corner, 1 March 2004 | Decision Analysis, Vol. 1, No. 1 Volume 30, Issue 5September-October 2000Pages 1-90 Article Information Metrics Information Published Online:October 01, 2000 © 2000 INFORMSCite asRobert Fildes, John Ranyard, (2000) Internal OR Consulting: Effective Practice in a Changing Environment. Interfaces 30(5):34-50. https://doi.org/10.1287/inte.30.5.34.1638 KeywordsPROFESSIONAL—OR/MS IMPLEMENTATIONORGANIZATIONAL STUDIES—EFFECTIVENESSPERFORMANCEPDF download

Expert system domain identification, evaluation and project management A TQM approach

Expert systems (ES) are designed to support and replicate management tasks and decision making characterized by experience and expertise. These commodities are becoming increasingly limited as organizations flatten their management structure. Effective identification and evaluation of domains appropriate for ES‐based solutions are critical to their successful development and implementation. Presents a comprehensive model for ES domain identification and evaluation that includes an emphasis on total quality management (TQM) and can be used as a project management tool. The TQM matrix evaluation model proposed facilitates qualitative and quantitative assessment of ES domains and can provide for dynamic evaluation, feedback and continuous quality management over the entire project life cycle. Tests the TQM matrix evaluation model by applying it to a real business problem and presents and discusses the results.

An expert system to assist in generating and scheduling construction activities

In the United Kingdom, several procedures have been developed to bring together both design and construction solutions, which are the responsibility of separate management systems, at the time when the design solution is substantially complete and final. This research is aiming at testing the feasibility of developing a facility which automates the establishment of a construction solution from a given design solution. A prototype has been developed to generate construction activities and their logic automatically which relies on the integration of Expert Systems technology, database and project management software. This paper briefly describes the working system and concentrates on the expert system part.

Field Dependence Research: A Historical Analysis of a Psychological Construct

Previous articleNext article No AccessField Dependence Research: A Historical Analysis of a Psychological ConstructJanice HaakenJanice Haaken Search for more articles by this author PDFPDF PLUS Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail SectionsMoreDetailsFiguresReferencesCited by Signs Volume 13, Number 2Winter, 1988 Article DOIhttps://doi.org/10.1086/494408 Views: 16Total views on this site Citations: 19Citations are reported from Crossref Copyright 1988 The University of ChicagoPDF download Crossref reports the following articles citing this article:Jamie L. Gloor, Stephanie K. Rehbock, Ronit Kark Critical events at critical times? A gendered identity approach on the path to (sustainable) leadership, Frontiers in Psychology 13 (Jan 2023).https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.932998Marta B. Calás, Linda Smircich Mute, mutation, and mutiny: on the work of feminist epistemology, Journal of Management History 27, no.11 (Jan 2021): 141–162.https://doi.org/10.1108/JMH-09-2020-0062Petr Kubíček, Čeněk Šašinka, Zdeněk Stachoň Selected Cognitive Issues of Positional Uncertainty in Geographical Data, Geografie 119, no.11 (Mar 2020): 67–90.https://doi.org/10.37040/geografie2014119010067Markus Hällgren, Janice Thomas, Stella George, Pamela Buckle Henning Re‐situating expert project managers' praxis within multiple logics of practice, International Journal of Managing Projects in Business 5, no.33 (Jun 2012): 377–399.https://doi.org/10.1108/17538371211235281Janice Lynne Thomas, Pamela Buckle-Henning Dancing in the white spaces: Exploring gendered assumptions in successful project managers’ discourse about their work, International Journal of Project Management 25, no.66 (Aug 2007): 552–559.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2007.05.001Li Ma, Judi McLean Parks Rules or Relationships: Scale Development of Universalism versus Particularism as Individual Values, SSRN Electronic Journal (Jan 2007).https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1111663Jill G. Morawski Reflexivity and the psychologist, History of the Human Sciences 18, no.44 (Jul 2016): 77–105.https://doi.org/10.1177/0952695105058472Ronit Kark, Ronit Waismel-Manor Organizational Citizenship Behavior: What's Gender Got To Do With It?, Organization 12, no.66 (Aug 2016): 889–917.https://doi.org/10.1177/1350508405057478Li Ma, Judi McLean Parks Power Corrupts . . . or Does It? The Influence of Power and Gender on the Acceptability of Negotiation Tactics, SSRN Electronic Journal (Jan 2004).https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.573562Pamela Buckle, Janice Thomas Deconstructing project management: a gender analysis of project management guidelines, International Journal of Project Management 21, no.66 (Aug 2003): 433–441.https://doi.org/10.1016/S0263-7863(02)00114-XJill G. Morawski Gifts bestowed, gifts withheld: Assessing psychological theory with a Kochian attitude., American Psychologist 56, no.55 (Jan 2001): 433–440.https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.5.433Joanne Martin Hidden Gendered Assumptions in Mainstream Organizational Theory and Research, Journal of Management Inquiry 9, no.22 (Jul 2016): 207–216.https://doi.org/10.1177/105649260092017Sandra Bosacki, Wilfred Innerd, Shelagh Towson Field Independence–Dependence and Self-Esteem in Preadolescents: Does Gender Make a Difference?, Journal of Youth and Adolescence 26, no.66 (Dec 1997): 691–703.https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022396625462George Balabanis, Samantha Craven Consumer confusion from own brand lookalikes: An exploratory investigation, Journal of Marketing Management 13, no.44 (May 1997): 299–313.https://doi.org/10.1080/0267257X.1997.9964474Rachel T. Hare-Mustin, Jeanne Marecek IV. Asking the Right Questions: Feminist Psychology and Sex Differences, Feminism & Psychology 4, no.44 (Jul 2016): 531–537.https://doi.org/10.1177/0959353594044007Nkiru Nzegwu Gender Equality in a Dual-Sex System: the Case of Onitsha, Canadian Journal of Law & Jurisprudence 7, no.11 (Jun 2015): 73–95.https://doi.org/10.1017/S0841820900002575Roy Jacques Critique and Theory Building: Producing Knowledge “From the Kitchen”, Academy of Management Review 17, no.33 (Jul 1992): 582–606.https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1992.4282015Carol Nagy Jacklin, Catherine McBride-Chang The Effects of Feminist Scholarship on Developmental Psychology, Psychology of Women Quarterly 15, no.44 (Nov 2016): 549–556.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1991.tb00429.xBeth B. Hess Beyond dichotomy: Drawing distinctions and embracing differences, Sociological Forum 5, no.11 (Mar 1990): 75–93.https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01115138

Callisto: An intelligent project management system

Large engineering projects, such as the engineering development of computers, involve a large number of activities and require cooperation across a number of departments. Due to technological and market uncertainties, these projects involve the management of a large number of changes. The Callisto project was born out of realization that the classical approaches to project management do not provide sufficient functionally to manage large engineering projects. Callisto was initiated as a research effort to explore project scheduling, control and configuration problems during the engineering prototype development of large computer systems and to devise intelligent project management tools that facilitate the documentation of project management expertise and its reuse from one project to another. In the first phase of the project, rule-based prototypes were used to build quick prototypes of project management expertise and the project management knowledge required to support expert project managers. In the second phase, the understanding of point solutions was used to capture the underlying models of project management in distributed project negotiations and comparative analysis. This article provides an overview of the problems, experiments, and the resulting models of project knowledge and constraint-directed negotiation.