Effects Of Alcohol Expectancies Research Articles

Acute alcohol intoxication and alcohol expectancy effects on women's memory for consensual and non-consensual sexual activity.

To test whether acute alcohol intoxication and alcohol expectancy affects how accurately women remember consensual and non-consensual sexual activity that occurred during an interactive hypothetical dating scenario. A balanced placebo randomized study that varied alcohol dose (mean Breath Alcohol Content; BrAC = 0.06%) and alcohol expectancy prior to participants encoding a hypothetical interactive rape scenario was implemented. Participants could elect to consent to sexual activity with a male partner in the hypothetical scenario. If they stopped consenting, non-consensual sexual intercourse (i.e., rape) was described. Seven days later, participants' memory for consensual and non-consensual sexual activity in the scenario was tested. Memory accuracy, confidence, and feelings of intoxication. A total of 90 females (M age = 20.5, SD = 2.2) were tested regarding their memory accuracy for the consensual and non-consensual sexual activities in the scenario. A multi-level logistic regression predicting memory accuracy for the perpetrator's behaviors during the rape indicated no effect of alcohol intoxication. However, a main effect of alcohol expectancy was found, whereby participants who expected to consume alcohol, compared to those who did not, recalled the perpetrator's behaviors during the rape more accurately. A second regression predicting memory accuracy for consensual sexual activity found no main effects for alcohol intoxication or alcohol expectancy. Participants recalled consensual sexual activity with a high degree of accuracy. Calibration analyses indicated that accuracy increased with confidence level, regardless of intoxication level or alcohol expectancy condition, but that women tended to be overconfident in general. This study provides an important test of how accurately women remember consensual and non-consensual sexual activities. The accuracy of this information is important for forensic medical examinations and police investigations following an allegation of sexual assault. Increased memory accuracy was found for offence details when participants expected to consume alcohol, suggesting there may be important differences in attentional processes (e.g., hypervigilance) depending on whether threat is present. Further research is necessary to investigate memory for sexual violence in real-world settings and to test methods for ascertaining the most complete and reliable accounts.

The prospective interactive effects of alcohol expectancies and subjective response on future drinking behavior.

Although alcohol expectancies and subjective response are independent predictors of drinking, social-cognitive theory suggests that expectancies may distort one's subjective response, creating discrepancies between expected and actual alcohol effects. A recent cross-sectional study found that unmet expectancies (using difference scores) were associated with heavier drinking. However, cross-sectional data cannot establish temporal precedence, and using difference scores ignores important conditional main effects. As such, the current study sought to evaluate how expectancy-subjective response discrepancies predict future drinking using prospective data and an interaction approach. Participants (N = 258) were randomly assigned to consume alcohol (target BAC = .08%) within a placebo-controlled alcohol administration session. Alcohol expectancies and subjective response were assessed across the full valence by arousal affective space using parallel measures. Results indicated a significant high arousal positive (HIGH+) interaction, such that, as HIGH+ expectancies increased, individuals at low and mean levels of HIGH+ subjective response drank more heavily 12 months later. There was also a significant high arousal negative (HIGH-) interaction with a similar pattern of moderated effects. No interactions were found for low arousal effects. These results indicate that individuals with unmet HIGH+ and HIGH- expectancies drink more heavily 12 months later, controlling for prior drinking. This suggests that clinicians may consider recommending specific interventions (e.g., expectancy challenges vs. pharmacotherapy) based upon an individual's levels of expectancies and subjective response to optimize intervention efficacy. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Subjective happiness interrupts the association between alcohol expectancies and alcohol consumption among reserve-dwelling first nation adolescents.

North American Indigenous (NAI) youth suffers disproportionately from consequences associated with alcohol use. Previous research has found that positive alcohol expectancies are robustly related to alcohol consumption among NAI youth and that changes in alcohol consumption are associated with concurrent changes in happiness. However, no work to date has examined the relation between happiness and alcohol expectancies, or the influence of happiness on the association between alcohol expectancies and alcohol consumption. First Nation adolescents between the ages of 11 and 18 living on a rural reserve in Eastern Canada (N = 106, Mage = 14.6 years, 50.0% female) completed a pencil-and-paper survey regarding their subjective happiness, positive alcohol expectancies, and alcohol consumption. Moderation analyses revealed a significant main effect of subjective happiness (b = -.10, p < .001) but not alcohol expectancies (b = .02, p = .14) on alcohol consumption. The interaction of alcohol expectancies and subjective happiness was significant, (b = -.01, p = .002). Analysis of simple slopes revealed that the effect of alcohol expectancies on alcohol consumption was significant for those reporting low (b = .07, p = .001), but not high levels of subjective happiness (b = -.02, p = .25). Results of the present study provide preliminary support for the utility of positive psychological interventions aiming to increase adolescent's subjective happiness to indirectly target alcohol consumption. Future work should test the effectiveness of such interventions and aim to replicate these findings in larger samples. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Supplemental Material for The Prospective Interactive Effects of Alcohol Expectancies and Subjective Response on Future Drinking Behavior

Supplemental Material for The Prospective Interactive Effects of Alcohol Expectancies and Subjective Response on Future Drinking Behavior

Moderate acute alcohol use impairs intentional inhibition rather than stimulus-driven inhibition

Moderate alcohol intake may impair stimulus-driven inhibition of motor actions in go/no-go and stop-signal tasks. Exposure to alcohol-related cues has been found to exacerbate this impairment. By contrast, the effect of alcohol use on intentional inhibition, or the capacity to voluntarily suspend an action, has rarely been investigated. We examined whether and how moderate alcohol intake affects stimulus-driven inhibition (stop-signal task) and intentional inhibition (chasing bottles task), during exposure to alcohol-related stimuli. One hundred and eleven participants were randomly assigned to an alcohol (male: 0.55 g/kg, female: 0.45 g/kg), placebo, or control group. For the stop-signal task, ANOVAs were performed on stop-signal reaction time (SSRT) and go RT with Pharmacological and Expectancy Effects of Alcohol, Stimulus Category (alcohol-related or neutral), and Sex as factors. For the chasing bottles task, multilevel survival analysis was performed to predict whether and when intentional inhibition was initiated, with the same factors. For the stop-signal task, Sex moderated the Pharmacological Effect of Alcohol on SSRT: only for females, alcohol consumption shortened SSRT. In the non-alcohol groups, males had shorter SSRT than females. Concerning intentional inhibition, the alcohol group initiated intentional inhibition less often, especially when stimuli were non-alcohol related. These findings indicate that (1) stimulus-driven inhibition and intentional inhibition reflect different aspects of response inhibition; (2) moderate alcohol intake negatively affects intentional inhibition (but not stimulus-driven inhibition). Speculatively, the observed impairment in intentional inhibition might underlie the lack of control over alcohol drinking behavior after a priming dose. This study highlights the potential role of intentional inhibition in the development of addiction.

To Infuse or Ingest in Human Laboratory Alcohol Research

Human alcohol laboratory studies use two routes of alcohol administration: ingestion and infusion. The goal of this paper was to compare and contrast these alcohol administration methods. The work summarized in this report was the basis of a 2019 Research Society on Alcoholism Roundtable, "To Ingest or Infuse: A Comparison of Oral and Intravenous Alcohol Administration Methods for Human Alcohol Laboratory Designs." We review the methodological approaches of each and highlight strengths and weaknesses pertaining to different research questions. We summarize methodological considerations to aid researchers in choosing the most appropriate method for their inquiry, considering exposure variability, alcohol expectancy effects, safety, bandwidth, technical skills, documentation of alcohol exposure, experimental variety, ecological validity, and cost. Ingestion of alcohol remains a common and often a preferable, methodological practice in alcohol research. Nonetheless, the main problem with ingestion is that even the most careful calculation of dose and control of dosing procedures yields substantial and uncontrollable variability in the participants' brain exposures to alcohol. Infusion methodologies provide precise exposure control but are technically complex and may be limited in ecological validity. We suggest that alcohol ingestion research may not be the same thing as alcohol exposure research; investigators should be aware of the advantages and disadvantages that the choice between ingestion and infusion of alcohol invokes.

Self-fulfilling prophecies: Documentation of real-world daily alcohol expectancy effects on the experience of specific positive and negative alcohol-related consequences.

Alcohol expectancies are consistently associated with alcohol use in cross-sectional and longitudinal studies. However, little research has examined whether alcohol expectancies on specific drinking occasions are associated with reported consequences on those days, particularly when controlling for the amount of alcohol consumed, thus differentiating the extent to which reported consequences may have resulted from alcohol or an "expectancy effect." This study examined consequence-specific daily expectancy effects. College students (N = 342; mean age 19.7 [standard deviation (SD) = 1.25], 52.9% female) participated in a longitudinal measurement burst study. During four 2-week intervals, participants used mobile phones to respond to 3 surveys per day via automated telephone interviews. The results showed that on days when college students had higher-than-average expectancies for specific subjective positive consequences (e.g., feeling more relaxed, being in a better mood), they were more likely to report experiencing those same consequences as a result of their alcohol use that day, even after controlling for how much they actually drank on that day. The same held true for subjective interpersonal negative consequences (e.g., becoming aggressive, rude, or obnoxious; embarrassing oneself), but not for less subjective physical/cognitive negative consequences (e.g., having a hangover, vomiting, getting hurt/injured, forgetting). The results suggest that one's expectations about the particular effects of alcohol tend to be self-fulfilling for subjective effects of alcohol even when they are not directly tied to the physiological effects of alcohol. The findings underscore the important role of alcohol expectancies, particularly the expectation of subjective positive social and tension-reduction/relaxation effects, in understanding problematic alcohol use. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Examination of the indirect effect of alcohol expectancies on ethnic identity and adolescent drinking outcomes.

Although overall rates of alcohol use tend to be lower among racial/ethnic minority youth compared to White youth, consequences associated with use tend to be more severe. Identifying factors that prevent alcohol use is crucial to reducing its impact among minority adolescents. One such factor is ethnic identity, which involves gaining clarity about one's ethnic background and regard toward one's ethnic group. Strong ethnic identity has been found to work through antidrug beliefs to decrease minority youth's substance use. The current study extends previous literature by examining whether specific alcohol cognitions-alcohol expectancies-explain the promotive effect of ethnic identity on alcohol use and severity of alcohol use among minority youth. Participants were 113 ethnic minority youth ages 12-18 (M = 15.27). Most participants were male (66%) and identified as non-Hispanic African American/Black (70%), followed by Hispanic/Latino (15%), multiracial (12%), and American Indian/Native American (3%). Participants completed self-report measures of ethnic identity, positive and negative alcohol expectancies, and hazardous drinking, which were analyzed in an indirect effects model. Results indicated that ethnic identity was inversely related to negative alcohol expectancies. A significant indirect effect of ethnic identity on severity of alcohol use through negative alcohol expectancies was found. However, no indirect effect was found for positive alcohol expectancies. Findings suggest that strong ethnic identity serves as a promotive factor preventing alcohol use for ethnic minority youth, in part through more negative alcohol expectancies, and may be a beneficial target for intervention programs to reduce alcohol use among this group. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

긍정 긴급성이 대학생 음주에 미치는 영향 : 알코올 기대와 작업기억용량의 조절효과를 중심으로

긍정 긴급성과 긍정 및 부정 알코올 기대, 그리고 작업기억용량은 모두 대학생들의 과도한 음주에 영향을 미치며, 그 과정에서 서로 상호작용할 가능성이 제안된 바 있다. 본 연구에서는 긍정 알코올 기대가 긍정 긴급성과 음주의 관계를 조절하는 반면에, 부정 알코올 기대는 작업기억용량이 양호한 경우에만 유의한 조절효과를 가질 것으로 가정하고 이를 검증하였다. 참가자는 음주경험이 있는 대학생 179명이었으며, 작업기억용량 과제의 응답 정확도 기준을 충족한 164명을 대상으로 위계적 회귀분석을 실시하였다. 분석 결과, 긍정 긴급성은 긍정알코올 기대의 수준이 높은 경우에만 음주를 정적으로 예측하였고, 작업기억용량의 크기는 이러한 상호작용에 영향을 미치지 않았다. 부정 알코올 기대는 작업기억용량의 크기와 관계없이 긍정 긴급성과 음주의 관계에 미치는 조절효과가 유의하지 않은 것으로 나타났다. 본연구는 선행연구에서 대학 시기의 과도한 음주에 대한 여러 위험요인들의 영향을 각각 따로 살펴본 것과 달리, 이를 통합적으로 검증하였다는 점에서 이론적 의의를 지닌다. 마지막으로 본 연구가 가지는 임상적 시사점 및 한계점을 논의하였다.

Causal Effects of Alcohol Intoxication on Sexual Risk Intentions and Condom Negotiation Skills Among High-Risk Men Who Have Sex with Men (MSM).

Alcohol use is a key risk factor for HIV infection among MSM, in part because intoxication may interfere with the use of prevention methods like condoms. However, few studies have examined whether this is due to alcohol's pharmacological or expectancy effects or explored the specific aspects of sexual decision-making that may be affected. In this study, high-risk, heavy drinking MSM (N = 121) were randomly assigned to receive either (1) alcohol beverages, (2) placebo beverages, or (3) control beverages, before navigating a video-based sexual risk scenario that assessed several aspects of sexual decision-making. Results showed that condom use intentions and negotiation behaviors were lower among alcohol and placebo participants compared with controls, but that few significant differences emerged between the alcohol and placebo groups. These findings contrast with similar past studies, and suggest that alcohol's expectancy effects may play a role in sexual decision-making.

Influence of University Students&amp;#039; Stress on Drinking Problem: Mediating Effect of Alcohol Expectancy and Moderating Effect of Stress Coping

Influence of University Students&amp;#039; Stress on Drinking Problem: Mediating Effect of Alcohol Expectancy and Moderating Effect of Stress Coping

The effects of alcohol expectancy and intake on slot machine gambling behavior.

Background and aimsAlthough alcohol intake and gambling often co-occur in related venues, there is conflicting evidence regarding the effects of alcohol expectancy and intake on gambling behavior. We therefore conducted an experimental investigation of the effects of alcohol expectancy and intake on slot machine gambling behavior.Methods Participants were 184 (females = 94) individuals [age range: 18–40 (mean = 21.9) years] randomized to four independent conditions differing in information/expectancy about beverage (told they received either alcohol or placebo) and beverage intake [actually ingesting low (target blood alcohol concentration [BAC] < 0.40 mg/L) vs. moderate (target BAC > 0.40 mg/L; ≈0.80 mg/L) amounts of alcohol]. All participants completed self-report questionnaires assessing demographic variables, subjective intoxication, alcohol effects (stimulant and sedative), and gambling factors (behavior and problems, evaluation, and beliefs). Participants also gambled on a simulated slot machine.ResultsA significant main effect of beverage intake on subjective intoxication and alcohol effects was detected as expected. No significant main or interaction effects were detected for number of gambling sessions, bet size and variation, remaining credits at termination, reaction time, and game evaluation.ConclusionAlcohol expectancy and intake do not affect gambling persistence, dissipation of funds, reaction time, or gambling enjoyment.

Positive expectancies mediate the link between race and alcohol use in a sample of Native American and Caucasian college students

Background: Though abundant research suggests that Native Americans report high rates of alcohol use and related consequences, little research has examined drinking patterns among Native American college students. It is possible that drinking rates for this group may differ from their non-college counterparts and also from those of Caucasian college students. The aim of this study was to examine whether alcohol use differs between Native American and Caucasian college students, and specifically whether alcohol expectancy effects mediate the relationship between race and drinking. Method: Participants were 43 Native American and 87 Caucasian college students who reported on their positive and negative expectancy effects and past-6-month drinking. Results: Caucasians reported drinking significantly more alcohol and holding stronger positive expectancies. Bootstrapping mediational analysis with 95% confidence intervals indicated that positive but not negative expectancy effects mediated the relationship between race and past-6-month drinking. Conclusions: This preliminary research is the first to examine expectancy effects as mediators of the relationship between Native American and Caucasian race and drinking. Further understanding of the differences in positive expectancy effects between groups may have important implications for prevention and treatment of alcohol use among Native American college students.

문제음주수준이 음주의 간접폐해에 미치는 영향: 음주에 대한 기대의 조절효과를 중심으로

문제음주수준이 음주의 간접폐해에 미치는 영향: 음주에 대한 기대의 조절효과를 중심으로

Depressive Symptoms, Acute Alcohol Intoxication, and Risk Rationale Effects on Men’s Condom Use Resistance

This study examined the role of depressive symptoms, acute intoxication, and risk rationale in men’s use of condom use resistance (CUR) tactics in an experimental study. Participants included 313 heterosexual male, nonproblem drinkers, ages 21 to 30. Participants were randomized to one of four beverage conditions: no alcohol, placebo, low (.04%) alcohol dose, or high (.08%) alcohol dose. They read an eroticized scenario depicting a consensual sexual encounter with a female partner who requested a condom to prevent either pregnancy or sexually transmitted infections (STIs) (risk rationale) and then indicated their intentions to use 10 different CUR tactics. Hypotheses related to the pharmacological, dosage, and expectancy effects of alcohol were tested in a generalized linear model. In intoxicated (.04% and .08%) men who were given a pregnancy risk rationale, depressive symptoms were associated with stronger intentions to use CUR tactics than in sober (control and placebo) men. Men who received a high alcohol dose (.08%) and who were given a pregnancy risk rationale reported higher intentions to use CUR tactics than those who received a lower alcohol dose (.04%). Findings suggest that the pharmacological effects of alcohol on men’s likelihood to resist condoms vary by the saliency of the risk rationale and mood-related variables.

Explicit and Implicit Positive Alcohol Expectancies in Problem and Non-Problem Drinkers: Differences Across Age Groups from Young Adolescence to Adulthood.

Aims: Recent studies with animal models showed that the stimulant and sedative effects of alcohol change during the adolescent period. In humans, the stimulant effects of ethanol are most often indirectly recorded through the measurement of explicit and implicit alcohol effect expectancies. However, it is unknown how such implicit and explicit expectancies evolve with age in humans during adolescence.Methods: Adolescent (13–16 year old), young adult (17–18 year old), and adult (35–55 year old) participants were recruited. On the basis of their score on the Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test (AUDIT), they were classified as non-problem (AUDIT ≤ 7) or problem (AUDIT ≥ 11) drinkers. The participants completed the Alcohol Expectancy Questionnaire (AEQ) and performed two unipolar Implicit Association Test (IAT) to assess implicit associations between alcohol and the concepts of “stimulation” and “sedation”.Results: Problem drinkers from the three age groups reported significantly higher positive alcohol expectancies than non-problem drinkers on all AEQ subscales. Positive alcohol explicit expectancies also gradually decreased with age, with adolescent problem drinkers reporting especially high positive expectancies. This effect was statistically significant for all positive expectancies, with the exception of relaxation expectancies that were only close to statistical significance. In contrast, stimulation and sedation alcohol implicit associations were not significantly different between problem and non-problem drinkers and did not change with age.Conclusion: These results indicate that explicit positive alcohol effect expectancies predict current alcohol consumption levels, especially in adolescents. Positive alcohol expectancies also gradually decrease with age in the three cross-sectional groups of adolescents, young adults, and adults. This effect might be related to changes in the physiological response to alcohol.

Direct and indirect effects of alcohol expectancies through drinking motives on alcohol outcomes among students in Vietnam

ObjectiveTo investigate whether the links between alcohol expectancies (tension reduction; global positive change; improved cognitive and motor abilities; and change in social behavior) and alcohol outcomes (drinking volume, 6+ drinks, alcohol problems, and symptoms of alcohol dependence) are mediated by drinking motives (social, enhancement, conformity, and coping). MethodA multi-stage sampling strategy was used in four Vietnamese provinces, resulting in a final sample of 4756 students (43.2% females) with mean age 20.6 (SD 1.8) years. Structural equation models, including indirect effects, were estimated for women and men separately. ResultsOverall, there were many cases of full mediation (indirect effects range from −0.006 to 0.083 and p-values from <0.05 to <0.001) and little indication of partial mediation (indirect effects range from −0.009 to 0.025 and p-values from <0.05 to <0.001). In both men and women, coping motives most frequently mediated the influence of expectancies on alcohol outcomes. Among men, enhancement motives and, to a lesser extent, social motives also played a role in mediating the effects of expectancies on alcohol outcomes. Among women, full mediation was found far less often and less consistently. ConclusionBy confirming that, in Vietnam, motives mediate the link between expectancies and drinking behavior, this study supports the cultural robustness of a key assumption of the motivational model (i.e. that drinking motives are more closely associated with alcohol use than expectancies). Enhancement, coping and social motives are most frequently found as mediators among male students whereas coping motive only is most frequently found as a mediator among female students. As most of the effects of expectancies were mediated by motives, drinking motives appear to be a promising factor for interventions.

Driving performance on the descending limb of blood alcohol concentration (BAC) in undergraduate students: a pilot study.

Young drivers are overrepresented in collisions resulting in fatalities. It is not uncommon for young drivers to socially binge drink and decide to drive a vehicle a few hours after consumption. To better understand the risks that may be associated with this behaviour, the present study has examined the effects of a social drinking bout followed by a simulated drive in undergraduate students on the descending limb of their BAC (blood alcohol concentration) curve. Two groups of eight undergraduate students (n = 16) took part in this study. Participants in the alcohol group were assessed before drinking, then at moderate and low BAC as well as 24 hours post-acute consumption. This group consumed an average of 5.3 ± 1.4 (mean ± SD) drinks in an hour in a social context and were then submitted to a driving and a predicted crash risk assessment. The control group was assessed at the same time points without alcohol intake or social context.; at 8 a.m., noon, 3 p.m. and 8 a.m. the next morning. These multiple time points were used to measure any potential learning effects from the assessment tools (i.e. driving simulator and useful field of view test (UFOV)). Diminished driving performance at moderate BAC was observed with no increases in predicted crash risk. Moderate correlations between driving variables were observed. No association exists between driving variables and UFOV variables. The control group improved measures of selective attention after the third asessement. No learning effect was observed from multiple sessions with the driving simulator. Our results show that a moderate BAC, although legal, increases the risky behaviour. Effects of alcohol expectancy could have been displayed by the experimental group. UFOV measures and predicted crash risk categories were not sentitive enough to predict crash risk for young drivers, even when intoxicated.

Five-Factor Model and alcohol outcomes: Mediating and moderating role of alcohol expectancies

The aim of the present study was to examine the relationship between the Five-Factor Model of personality and alcohol expectancies (AEs) with different alcohol outcomes. The sample was composed of 738 participants (63.7% females). Path and regression analyses were performed to test the mediation and moderation effects. The results indicated that Neuroticism was related to alcohol consumption through Positive Alcohol Expectancies, and that Negative Alcohol Expectancies, but also Positive Alcohol Expectancies, partially mediated the relationship of Neuroticism to alcohol-related problems. In addition, Positive Alcohol Expectancies partially mediated the associations of extraversion and low conscientiousness with weekend Standard Drink Units (SDUs), and they completely mediated the associations of these personality variables with alcohol-related problems. Additional direct paths were found from low agreeableness to weekly SDUs and alcohol-related problems; and from low openness to weekend SDUs. Moderation effects of alcohol expectancies on personality and both alcohol use and alcohol-related problems were also found. The present research contributes new evidence on the influence of the five factors of personality on alcohol outcomes, and the mediation/moderation role of alcohol expectancies. These findings can be useful to develop prevention/intervention programmes.

Direct and indirect effects of alcohol expectancies on alcohol-related problems.

This study investigates pathways from alcohol outcome expectancies to alcohol-related problems (ARPs), considering alcohol volume and episodic heavy drinking (EHD) as potential mediators. It is further examined whether these pathways vary by age. The population-based sample comprised 6,823 individuals aged 18 to 64 years reporting alcohol use in the past year. Direct and indirect effects of five alcohol expectancies (social assertiveness, tension reduction, sexual enhancement, cognitive impairment, aggression) and alcohol use (average daily intake, EHD) on a latent measure of ARPs (six items of the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test) were investigated. A multiple-group structural equation model with three age groups (18 to 24, 25 to 44, 45 to 64 years) was examined. In individuals aged 18 to 24 years, social assertiveness expectancies were positively associated with average intake and EHD, which in turn were associated with more ARPs. In addition, expectancies related to cognitive impairment and aggression were directly linked to more ARPs without mediation in this age group. In individuals aged 25 years and older, tension reduction expectancies were associated with more ARPs through increased average intake. In contrast, high scores on cognitive impairment were associated with lower average intake and in turn with fewer ARPs. Challenging expectancies of sociability in young and expectancies of relaxation in mid adulthood might help decrease high-risk drinking and subsequently ARPs. Considering negative alcohol expectancies may help to identify younger individuals at high risk for ARPs, even if they have not previously exhibited repeated excessive drinking. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).