Sport Psychology Research Articles

Psychometric properties of the Recovery Experience Questionnaire in a coaching population

Recognized as the process of psychophysiological unwinding from the demands of work and other stressors, occupational recovery has been a popular topic of study over the past decade. Building on the recovery research in occupational workers and more recently athletes, sport and performance psychology scholars have begun to consider the occupational recovery of the team around the team (i.e., athletic trainers and sport psychology professionals). Like the aforementioned professionals, coaches may be able to use recovery to buffer work-related stressors which can impact their health, work performance, and career longevity. That said, there is a dearth of research on coach recovery, perhaps due to a lack of appropriate measures to study occupational recovery in this specific population. The purpose of the current study, therefore, was to validate the Recovery Experience Questionnaire (REQ) in a coaching population. A sample of 237 collegiate and professional coaches (148 males, 89 females) were recruited from various sports, competitive levels, and roles. In addition to assessing two forms of reliability, a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted to evaluate the four latent variable measurement model of the REQ. Furthermore, correlational analyses were used to demonstrate discriminant validity between the REQ and a measure of perceived stress. Collectively, the results suggest that the REQ possesses strong psychometric properties and is a measure worthy of further exploration and use in an elite coaching population.

The Effect of Anxiety Level on Athlete’s Performance

Anxiety is an emotion that arises as a result of a person’s absorption due to a threatening situation for no apparent reason. Anxiety competing is something that is considered in the field of psychology in the last period of time, especially in sports psychology. In overcoming anxiety in athletes before and during the match requires several supporting factors such as self-confidence, motivation, mental toughness, mental training, gender and internal and external in athletes. Purpose: This journal will discuss the level of anxiety of athletes before and during the match in the athlete’s sports performance. Methods: This study uses a literature systematic method with inclusion of journals using English, Indonesian language journals, journals available in full text, journals examining athlete anxiety before matches, journals examining anxiety during matches, journals released in 2019-2023. Results found that there are several factors that cause athlete anxiety before and during matches, athlete motivation, athlete confidence, mental training, gender differences and mental toughness and different tribes.

Establishment of a physical exercise evaluation index system for school-age children with asthma.

To construct a comprehensive physical exercise evaluation index system for asthmatic children aged 6-12 years. Based on knowledge-attitude-practice(KAP) theory, we constructed an item pool for a physical exercise evaluation index system using a literature review and semistructured interviews and refined the index system through two questionnaire cycles with Delphi experts. For the two questionnaire rounds, the recovery rate was 100%, the experts' authority coefficients were 0.850 and 0.836, and the coordinated coefficients were 0.167 and 0.202 (P<0.001). Finally, four first-level indicators, namely, disease factors, exercise environment, exercise practice, and exercise psychology; 11 second-level indicators; and 50 third-level indicators were developed as a physical exercise evaluation index system for asthmatic children. A physical exercise evaluation index system built using a literature review, qualitative interviews, and Delphi technique can provide scientific guidance for children with asthma, caregivers and health professionals to comprehensively assess the children's physical exercise.

A chain-mediated model of the effect of physical exercise on loneliness

The physical and mental health development of college students has gradually become an important topic of social concern. The academic community focuses on different ways of physical exercise to improve the mental health of college students. On the basis of sports psychology, this paper discusses the interaction mechanism between physical activity and social support, interpersonal relationship quality and loneliness of college students, that is, physical and mental health effects of physical activities to promote the psychological level of college students. By random sampling, 784 college students were investigated and analyzed with physical exercise scale, loneliness scale, interpersonal relationship scale and social support scale, based on the general characteristics of the demographics variables, and through the analysis of multiple regression path model, this paper further explored the mechanism of the effects of physical activity, social support, loneliness and interpersonal relationship quality of college students. The results showed that physical exercise had a negative predictive effect on loneliness(β = − 0.246, p<0.01) and a positive predictive effect on interpersonal relationship quality and social support(β = 0.186, p<0.01; β = 0.156, p<0.01).In addition, social support and interpersonal relationship quality play a mediating role between physical exercise and loneliness, including three mediating paths, namely, social support and interpersonal relationship quality play an independent mediating role, the link mediating effect of social support and interpersonal relationship quality. According to the theory of psychological needs, the results show that physical exercise has an indirect effect on loneliness of college students through the chain mediating effect of interpersonal relationship quality and social support. College students can improve the level of social support and the quality of interpersonal relationships, and reduce the sense of loneliness.

PRANAYAMA AND ITS ROLE IN MANAGING COMPETITIVE ANXIETY: A STUDY ON FEMALE BASKETBALL PLAYERS

This study explores the impact of pranayama, a yogic breathing practice, on reducing state anxiety in collegiate female basketball players facing competitive pressures. Anxiety is a key psychological factor that can hinder athletic performance, and effective strategies to manage it are critical. The study involved nine female athletes (19.11 ± 0.93) competing at collegiate and district levels, who participated in a single-group, pre-post intervention design. Using the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2) to measure anxiety levels, assessments were conducted before and after an eight-week yoga-based intervention. The results revealed a significant reduction (p&lt;0.05) in both somatic and cognitive components of state anxiety, alongside a notable improvement in self-confidence (p&lt;0.05). These findings suggest that integrating pranayama into athletes’ training regimens can effectively alleviate pre-competitive anxiety, bolster psychological resilience, and enhance overall readiness for competition. The study emphasises the potential of pranayama as a practical and beneficial tool in sports psychology and athlete development programs.

Research on monitoring college students’ sports psychological stress response and ideological and political education intervention based on biosensors

The current study aims to find out the psychosocial stress reactions of college students involved in sports and assess the impact of ideological and political education (I&amp;PE) treatment based on the biosensor. Thus, we plan to use the biosensors including the heart rate monitors and the skin conductance devices to define the level of physiological stress in physical activities. The study also evaluates the extent to which the organizationally developed I&amp;PE program effectively reduces psychological stressor by promoting resilience improvement, ideological awareness, and community support. This makes the research investigate the correlation between biosensor-based performance data on sports, stress and impressions of I&amp;PE together with non-quantitative participants’ feedback. The outcomes of the study will identify stress management among college sports with potential biosensor use in educational contexts. This study fosters the sciences of sports psychology, interventional education, and mental health with a view of developing an all-inclusive student well-being framework.

Diagnostic effectiveness of the Sport Mental Health Assessment Tool 1 supplemented with a brief clinical intake interview in a cohort of Polish elite Olympic athletes

ObjectiveSeveral studies have used the Sport Mental Health Assessment Tool 1 (SMHAT-1) among athletes but none have combined SMHAT-1 with a subsequent clinical intake interview. The aim of this study...

The Relationship Between Spirituality and Sports from the Point of View of Sports Psychology Researchers: A Systematic Review of Research Over Two Decades.

This systematic review investigates the relationship between spirituality and sports as explored by sports psychology researchers over the past two decades. Utilizing four reputable databases-Psychology and Behavioral Science Collection, PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus-articles published between 2000 and 2023 were examined. Sixty-one articles met inclusion criteria for thefinal review. The study categorizes findings based on article frequency across two decades, participant demographics (athletes, coaches, students, psychologists, injured individuals, managers, and sports professionals), research methodologies (qualitative, quantitative, review studies, and ethnography), and data collection methods (library research, questionnaires, interviews, open-ended inquiries, observations, and documentation). Notably, the number of articles published in the second decade (2011-2023) doubled compared to the first decade (2000-2010). While professional athletes were the primary focus of 30 articles, a significant portion (18 articles) examined spirituality in relation to sports. The predominant method approaches were text analysis and surveys, with 14 and 13 articles, respectively. Data collection methods primarily involved library research, questionnaires, and interviews, with 26, 17, and 17 articles, respectively. The analysis highlights several thematic categories, including the relationship between spirituality and sports performance, spirituality's role in shaping sports culture, and the intersection of spirituality and religion within sports. Additionally, discussions delve into the religious identity of athletes and the impact of spirituality on various psychological variables within sports contexts. The research findings suggest a complex and nuanced relationship between spirituality and sport, but evidence regarding a cause-and-effect relationship remains inconclusive.

Investigating the relationships among athlete leadership behaviours, perceptions of athlete leader fairness, and cohesion

ABSTRACT The purpose of the study was to examine athlete leader fairness in relation to athlete leadership behaviours and cohesion. Participants included 363 intercollegiate team sport athletes from Canada and the United States. Participants completed the Leadership Scale for Sports (Chelladurai & Saleh [1980]. Dimensions of leader behavior in sports: Development of a leadership scale. Journal of Sport Psychology, 2(1), 34–45. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsp.2.1.34) to assess athlete leadership, Group Environment Questionnaire (Eys, Carron, et al., [2007]. Item wording and internal consistency of a measure of cohesion: The Group Environment Questionnaire. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 29(3), 395–402. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.29.3.395) to measure cohesion, and a leader fairness inventory (Colquitt [2001]. On the dimensionality of organizational justice: A construct validation of a measure. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(3), 386–400. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.86.3.386). Structural equation modelling was used to assess athlete leader fairness as a mediator in the relationship between athlete leadership behaviours and cohesion. Positive relationships were found between athlete leadership behaviours of training and instruction, social support, and positive feedback with dimensions of athlete leader fairness, whereas autocratic behaviour was found to have a negative relationship with athlete leader fairness. Procedural fairness was positively related to all dimensions of cohesion, and interpersonal fairness was positively related to ATG-S. Regarding indirect effects, significant effects were found between athlete leadership behaviours and cohesion through the mediators of procedural fairness and interpersonal fairness. From these findings, procedural fairness was identified as a full mediator between training and instruction and all dimensions of cohesion, and interpersonal fairness was identified as a full mediator in the following relationships: autocratic behaviour-to-ATG-S, social support-to-ATG-S, and positive feedback-to-ATG-S. The present findings provide support for athlete leaders as a source of leader fairness in team sport. The findings also suggest that fairness may help explain why leadership behaviours positively relate to cohesion, indicating that athlete leaders should provide fair leadership to their team members.

A105: Correlation Analysis Between Cognitive Style and Judgment Accuracy of Tennis Umpires in Zhejiang Province

Background/Purpose: The influence of cognitive style on decision-making in sports has always been a hot research direction in sports psychology. As the law enforcers in the stadium, the individual cognitive style of the umpire in the penalty will also affect the results of a game to an extent. This paper studied the accuracy of on-the-spot decision-making judgment of tennis umpires classified by field dependent-field independent cognitive style and provided a new idea and scientific method for the selection and cultivation of tennis umpires. Methods/Design: In this experiment, literature method, experimental method, mathematical statistics, logical analysis method and other related research methods were used. In the experimental method, a total of 68 tennis umpires of three, two, one and national level in Zhejiang province were selected as research objects. Their field-dependent-field-independent cognitive styles were distinguished by Rod-Frame tests, using video experiments to obtain the experimental results. Results: As the level of umpires increases, the proportion of umpires with field-independent cognitive style increases, and the proportion of umpires with field-dependent cognitive style decreases. There is no significant difference in video experiment between umpires of the same level and different ages. Short-term training (one month) can improve the accuracy of umpires' judgment, but the improvement of first-level and national-level umpires is not obvious, and the improvement of second-level and third-level umpires is significant. There was no significant correlation between field cognitive style and video experiment results in the second and third-level umpires. In the first-level and national umpires, there is a significant correlation between field cognitive style and video experiment results. The correct rate of video experiment of field-independent umpires is significantly higher than that of field-dependent umpires. Conclusion: Level and cognitive style are important factors affecting the accuracy of umpire judgment. In low-level umpires, training is an important means to enhance the level of decision-making. Among high-level umpires, field-independent umpires have more potential and development space than field-dependent umpires.

Generative AI in sport and exercise psychology: Exploring opportunities and overcoming challenges

Sport and Exercise Psychologists are required to remain aware of technological advances and the impact that these may have on their profession. Artificial Intelligence (AI), and in particular Generative AI (GenAI), has become available to the general public and has widespread use much like the rise of the internet in the late 1990s. This advancement in technology has created new challenges for Psychologists – whether they are in practice or academia. Like the internet, AI tools may be a double-edged sword and have the potential to disrupt both the academic and applied practice of psychologists, offering both challenges and opportunities for the field. Therefore, it is important that Psychologists develop AI literacy so that they are equipped with knowledge on the functionalities of AI and understand the ethical implications for its use. In particular, knowledge of the underlying systems, their general principles, and the ways in which they have developed ‘knowledge’ are crucial for navigating AI whether it is to be integrated into practice or not. The aim of this paper is to discuss the potential transformation and innovation in practice provided by AI and argues that for this to be achieved the development of AI literacy is the starting point.

A160: Effects of Social Support on College Students' Exercise Behavior

Background/Purpose: Improving college students’ physical fitness and health has been a critical concern for the state and society. Existing studies have shown that exercise self-efficacy and social support are essential intrinsic and extrinsic factors influencing college students’ exercise behavior. This study is based on the theory of social support. It replaced positive psychology with exercise self-efficacy, analyzed the influence of social support on college students’ exercise behavior, and explored the mediating role of exercise self-efficacy between social support and exercise behavior. Methods: 807 college students were randomly selected for the survey using the Perceived Social Support Scale, Physical Exercise Behavior Scale, and Exercise Self-Efficacy Scale. Data were analyzed on SPSS 26.0 using descriptive statistics, Pearson’s correlation method for variable correlation, the PROCESS plug-in (version 3.1) Model 4 for mediation analysis, and the Bootstrap test. Results: (1) There was a significant positive correlation between social support, exercise behavior, and exercise self-efficacy (r = 0.114–0.193, P &lt; 0.01); (2) Social support was able to negatively and significantly positively predict exercise behavior (β = 2.680, P &lt; 0.01); (3) Exercise self-efficacy played a partial mediating role in the influence of social support on physical exercise behavior (β = 0.327, t = 5.200, 95% CI = [0.183, 1.122], interval does not include 0), and the mediating effect was 21.29%. Conclusion/Discussion: Exercise self-efficacy had a mediating role in the influence of social support on college students’ exercise behavior. It also suggested that school sports departments can enhance exercise self-efficacy by improving college students’ social support to further promote their participation in exercise activities. Unlike previous studies, this study replaced positive psychology with exercise self-efficacy and analyzed the partial mediating effect of exercise self-efficacy between social support and exercise behavior, suggesting that we may also have other psychological variables, such as exercise motivation. In the mediation model, this study only analyzed the overall social support. The follow-up study can divide social support into three dimensions: family support, friend support, and teacher support, and explore the specific impact path and differences. In summary, this study examined social support as an independent variable, exercise behavior as a dependent variable, and exercise self-efficacy as an intermediary variable to construct an intermediary model. Combined with the perspective of sports science and psychology, it provided a theoretical basis for guiding college students to participate in physical exercise and actively improve their physical health.

Body Image Experiences in Retired Olympians: Losing the Embodied Self

Athlete body dissatisfaction is prevalent across sports and can lead to disordered eating, negative affect, and poor mental health. Whether body image concerns persist into athletic retirement is a focus of research, predominately involving survey-based data in usually sub-elite athletic samples. This study is the first to focus on the meanings elite athletes ascribe to their bodies in retirement. We recruited 31 retired elite athletes, including 23 former Olympians, to participate in a semi-structured interview. More than 25 hours of interview data was transcribed verbatim and subject to a reflexive thematic analysis. We constructed 4 major themes to describe athlete experiences: 1) A legacy of body-conscious culture 2) The struggle for “normal”, 3) Loss of body as loss of self, 4) Towards new meanings and identities. Athletes explained how the body surveillance culture of elite sport echoed into their post-sport lives. An Olympian identity was considered an embodied identity, so body changes represented a loss of the self. Adjusting to regular eating and exercise routines was deemed challenging, with minimal access to guidance and support. Accepting the inevitability of physical changes in retirement and finding new meanings and identities, were deemed effective coping strategies. Athletes’ insights can support sport psychologists and elite sport organisations to devise strategies and policies to facilitate adaptation to body changes post-retirement from sport.

A018: Dual-Process Advantages of Ball Players in Sport-Related Domains

Background: Based on a dual-process framework, two qualitatively different modes of processing guide human behaviour. Type 1 processes refer to automatic, unconscious processing that can be responsible for Task 1, while Type 2 processes refer to controlled, conscious processing required by Task 2. Although many existing sport psychology studies emphasize that the dual-process model can be applied to the sports domain, this application has shortcomings. The first debate of this application is whether dual-process advantages in athletes are limited to sport-specific realms. Furthermore, although the dual-process framework pays more attention to automatic processes (Type 1 processes), it loses sight of subliminal processes, as well as the combination between subliminal processes (Type 1 processes) and working memory processes (Type 2 processes), which is more associated with real competitive game situations. The second controversy is the relationship between the two processing types. Therefore, the present article aimed to answer two questions: (1) whether athletes show better performance in the dual-process situation when the stimuli are not related or related to their expertise domain, and (2) whether dual processes compete for cognitive resources, that is, whether working memory load influences subliminal priming. Methods: The study used a mixed factorial design of 2 (subjects: athletes vs. non-athletes) x 2 (load: low vs. high) x 2 (consistency: consistent vs. inconsistent). A novel dual-process paradigm was developed, where participants performed a subliminal priming task while completing a working memory task. The memory materials were digits and the subliminal stimuli were either unrelated to (Experiment 1) or related to (Experiment 2) specialized athletic experience. Electroencephalography was employed in this study. Sixty aged-matched competitive table tennis players and 60 non-athletes participated. Results: The results showed that there was no significant difference between athletes and non-athletes in the performance of subliminal processing under working memory load in Experiment 1; however, in Experiment 2, athletes were significantly better than non-athletes. Additionally, subliminal priming remained unaffected with increasing working memory load among both athletes and non-athletes. Cross-experiment analyses revealed a significant four-way interaction effect of experiment x group x load x consistency. Conclusions: These results suggest that athletes show better performance in the dual-process situation when the stimuli are related to their expertise domain. In addition, dual processes compete for cognitive resources, that is, working memory load influences subliminal priming.

Should sport psychology professionals care about hidden disabilities and conditions?

In this article, the authors assert that sport psychology professionals (SPPs) and other key support personnel (e.g. coaches, sport medicine professionals, etc.) should maintain a sensitivity (e.g. indicators, impact upon participation and performance, special considerations, techniques, etc.) to hidden disabilities and conditions (HDCs) in their professional practice and work with youth athletes (i.e. children, adolescents). This assertion is based upon years of performance consulting and coaching, but also a growing and corroborating literature (Braun &amp; Braun, 2015; Ludyga et al., 2023; Munn et al., 2022). Fundamentally, HDCs are common, and practitioners and coaches are likely to encounter cases (whether disclosed or not) in their work. HDCs can impact performance given the inherent sensory, cognitive, muscular, and functional processes (Braun &amp; Braun, 2015; Lieberman &amp; Childs, 2020; Osborn, n.d.; Stanley &amp; Baghurst, 2022). SPPs may be equipped to consult and refer according to the needs and exceptionalities of their youth clients with HDCs (e.g. clinical psychologists, educational specialists, physical therapists, etc.). SPPs may also advocate on behalf of clients (with families, educators, coaches, professionals) to enable unique needs being met and help generate appropriate strategies. The purpose of this study is to provide an overview of HDCs, their prevalence and implications for athletic participation and performance. Thereafter, suggestions for SPPs in their work with these youth athletes will be discussed, including considerations for approaches and intakes, action plans, and HDC specific modification ideas. First, a brief introduction to disability in sport is warranted.

The Moderating Role of Perception of Control in the Relationship between Competence Evaluation and Sports Motivation among Athletes

Understanding the role of perception of control in the relationship between competence evaluation and athletes&amp;rsquo; sports motivation is sacrosanct for optimal performance and participation. The present study examined the direct effect of competence evaluation by (a) investigating its relationship with athletes&amp;#39; sports motivation, (b) the direct effect of perception of control on athletes&amp;#39; sports motivation, and (c) testing the indirect effect of perception of control on the relationship between competence evaluation and athletes&amp;rsquo; sports motivation. Student-athletes (N = 200, Mage = 20.61 years; SD = 3.73) completed self-report measures assessing competence evaluation, sports motivation and perception of control. Regression analysis showed that competence evaluation and perception of control were significantly associated with sports motivation; however, the perception of control moderated the interaction of competence evaluation and athletes&amp;#39; sports motivation. Thus, competence evaluation was significantly associated with sports motivation for athletes with moderate and high perceptions of control. The findings underscore the need for athletes, coaches, sports psychologists, and other sports stakeholders to understand how competence evaluation and perception of control interrelate to boost motivational levels among athletes in sports competitions.

골프선수의 자기관리 및 정신력이 인지된 경기력에 미치는 영향

This study investigates the relationships between self-management strategies, mental toughness, and perceived performance among golf players. Data were collected through surveys from 131 registered student athletes, amateurs, and professional players from the Korea Golf Association. To measure self-management, mental toughness, and perceived performance, the survey tools used in previous studies were modified and refined to align with the goals of this research. Validity and reliability were confirmed through confirmatory factor analysis. The results revealed that self-management significantly positively influenced both mental toughness and perceived performance. Furthermore, mental toughness mediated the relationship between self-management and perceived performance, with the mediation effect being statistically significant. This study demonstrates the impact of self-management strategies on actual performance outcomes in sports psychology and highlights the need for their integration into training and coaching programs. Additionally, it shows that improving self-management skills can contribute to overall performance and psychological stability. Future research should further explore the specific effects of self-management strategies across different sports disciplines and competitive levels.

A Model of Psychological Cooperation with the Polish National Ski Jumping Team

The aim of this article is to present a model of a sports psychologist’s work with the Polish national team in skijumping. Considering the tendency of sport psychology to use empirically verified models of working with ath-letes (Zdebski, Blecharz, 2004), in this article, the theoretical premises and practical applications are presented ofthe MAC model (Gardner, Moore, 2006, 2007). In the first part of the article, characteristics are demonstrated of theski jumping discipline, with particular emphasis on its extreme nature, which requires appropriate predispositionsand skills from athletes. The rules of the competition and specific requirements for jumping technique are brieflypresented. In the second part of the article, the theoretical basis is given of the proposed MAC model and the justi-fication for using this concept in cooperation with athletes. The importance of mindfulness, acceptance and com-mitment training in ski jumping is discussed in detail and the use of such interventions is justified. In the last partof the paper, an example of the application regarding the adopted model in working with an athlete is covered.

Mental preparation in runners: gender differences, competition levels, and psychological training effects on performance.

The present study aimed to investigate the mental and sports psychological preparation, as well as tactical preparation, of distance runners for competition. We examined whether there are differences based on gender, competition level and various race disciplines, as well as how mental preparation influences sports skills applicable in different competitive situations. The sample consisted of 201 distance runners who completed the Sports Mental Training Questionnaire (SMTQ) alongside assessments of their sports psychology and race tactics. The results indicated that neither gender, competition level, nor race discipline had a significant impact on mental preparedness. However, women demonstrated notably higher scores in the use of self-talk as a mental technique. Additionally, participants who received training in sports psychology scored significantly higher across several mental skills, as well as on the overall mental preparedness score. This article validates the SMTQ and its association with mental readiness, as confirmatory factor analysis demonstrates adequate validity. Additionally, mental preparation was found to enhance performance and well-being among distance runners. Further research is needed to explore the impact of group interventions to broaden the reach of mental training programs.

The effect of questioning gender stereotype threat on girl’s standing long jump performance

BackgroundOver the past few years, the sport psychology literature has established that gender stereotype threat (ST) is one of the factors that can impair girls’ performance. However, few studies have attempted to annihilate these negative effects. The purpose of the current study was to investigate whether questioning gender ST can mitigate the classical decline in girls’ standing long jump (SLJ) performance.MethodsThe participants were 120 girls (Mage = 10.74 ± 0.85 years), selected through convenience sampling and randomly assigned to three groups: the gender ST group (n = 40), the questioning group (n = 40), and the control group (n = 40). For all groups, baseline performance (i.e., SLJ) was measured by a female researcher following a warm-up period. In the experimental phase, the control group repeated the baseline conditions; the gender ST group completed the same test but was evaluated by a male examiner (i.e., implicit stereotype induction), while participants in the questioning group were assessed after receiving questioning statements while performing the task in front of a male examiner.ResultsThe results of the present study showed that the induction of a gender ST leads to a decrease in SLJ in girls. Additionally, if these inducing conditions of gender ST are accompanied by a questioning condition, the negative effects of gender ST can be reduced, and SLJ in girls does not decline.ConclusionBased on our findings, this intervention is recommended as a simple, inexpensive, and quick solution for mitigating the negative effects of gender ST on girl’s motor performance.