Exercise-based Injury Prevention Research Articles

A new injury prevention program ‘FUNBALL’ improves cognitive performance of young football (soccer) players: A cluster randomized controlled trial

The youth football injury prevention program ‘FUNBALL’ contains exercises requiring high cognitive demands, which are performed concurrently to the training of the respective motor task. This study evaluates whether the program increases cognitive performances of young football players.1253 football players (aged 13–19 years old) were randomly assigned to either a control (CON) or an intervention (INT) group. The INT group performed the ‘FUNBALL’ program at least twice per week in their training sessions for one season (9 months). The CON group continued their training routine. From the total sample, the cognitive performance of 304 players (n = 135 CON; n = 169 INT) was assessed at the beginning and the end of the season using the Cogstate® Brief Battery, with the following subtests: One Back test (accuracy), Two Back test (accuracy), One Card Learning test (accuracy), Chase Test (correct moves per second), Set Shifting (accuracy), Identification test (speed), Detection test (speed), Groton Maze Learning Test (accuracy), and Groton Maze Learning Test Delayed Recall (accuracy).A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) on the cognitive performance improvements from pre-to posttest showed that the INT group improved their performances more strongly than the CON group for all cognitive tests, namely for working memory, visual learning, visual motor control, attention, psychomotor function, memory, and executive function.The present study indicates that the exercise-based injury prevention program ‘FUNBALL’ may improve the cognitive performance of young football players. Future research should include an active control group, and should investigate whether the improvement in cognition also has beneficial effects on in-game performance. Trial registration numberAsPredicted (https://aspredicted.org/2kb3b.pdf).

Effectiveness of exercise-based sports injury prevention programmes in reducing injury rates in adolescents and their implementation in the community: a mixed-methods systematic review

ObjectiveDespite evidence supporting the efficacy of sport injury prevention programmes (SIPPs) in adolescents, implementation of SIPPs in community settings is low. This review aims to synthesise and integrate evidence on...

Efficacy of a new injury prevention programme (FUNBALL) in young male football (soccer) players: a cluster-randomised controlled trial

ObjectivesTo evaluate the efficacy of a new multicomponent, exercise-based injury prevention programme in football players 13–19 years old.MethodsTwo-arm cluster-randomised controlled trial with clubs as the unit of randomisation. 55 football...

Ankle Injury Prevention Programs for Youth Sports: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.

Previous research has demonstrated that using a multicomponent approach to ankle injury preventions can significantly reduce ankle injuries; however, these studies lack specific intervention recommendations. To evaluate the exercise components of prevention programs on ankle injuries specifically in high school athletes. Secondary objectives were to assess the overall effectiveness of prevention programs on ankle injuries in this population and how compliance and education may impact success. A total of 5 databases were searched through September 26, 2022. Study inclusion criteria included randomized control trials (RCTs) investigating exercise interventions in high school athletes aged 13 to 19 years, participation in sports competition, reporting of injury incidence, and specific exercise interventions used. Systematic review and meta-analysis. Level 1. Pooled overall ankle injury incidence rate ratio and 95% CIs were calculated using random-effects meta-analysis. A total of 10 studies were included, of which 9 used multicomponent exercise interventions and 1 used only balance training. Of the 10 studies, 3 demonstrated statistically significant reduction in ankle injuries. When data from all 10 studies were pooled and analyzed, there was a statistically significant overall reduction (incidence rate ratio, 0.74; 95% CI 0.60-0.91) in ankle injuries when comparing intervention groups with controls. The most effective injury prevention programs included multiple components, emphasized strengthening and agility exercises, and promoted high adherence to the intervention. The importance of coach and player education on how and why to perform an injury prevention program as well as the frequency and duration of programs was also important. Exercise-based injury prevention programs may reduce ankle injury incidence in youth athletes by 26% when pooling data from a multitude of sport types/settings.

The Effects of Exercise-Based Injury Prevention Programmes on Injury Risk in Adult Recreational Athletes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Injuries are common in adult recreational athletes. Exercise-based injury prevention programmes offer the potential to reduce the risk of injury and have been a popular research topic. Yet, syntheses and meta-analyses on the effects of exercise-based injury prevention programmes for adult recreational athletes are lacking. We aimed to synthesise and quantify the pooled intervention effects of exercise-based injury prevention programmes delivered to adults who participate in recreation sports. Studies were eligible for inclusion if they included adult recreational athletes (aged > 16years), an exercise-based intervention and used a randomised controlled trial design. Exclusion criteria were studies without a control group, studies using a non-randomised design and studies including participants who were undertaking activity mandatory for their occupation. Eleven literature databases were searched from earliest record, up to 9 June, 2022. The Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale was used to assess the risk of bias in all included studies. Reported risk statistics were synthesised in a random-effects meta-analysis to quantify pooled treatment effects and associated 95% confidence intervals and prediction intervals. Sixteen studies met the criteria. Risk statistics were reported as risk ratios [RRs] (n = 12) or hazard ratios [HRs] (n = 4). Pooled estimates of RRs and HRs were 0.94 (95% confidence interval 0.80-1.09) and 0.65 (95% confidence interval 0.39-1.08), respectively. Prediction intervals were 0.80-1.09 and 0.16-2.70 for RR and HR, respectively. Heterogeneity was very low for RR studies, but high for HR studies (tau = 0.29, I2 = 81%). There was evidence of small study effects for RR studies, evidenced by funnel plot asymmetry and Egger's test for small study bias: - 0.99 (CI - 2.08 to 0.10, p = 0.07). Pooled point estimates were suggestive of a reduced risk of injury in intervention groups. Nevertheless, these risk estimates were insufficiently precise, too heterogeneous and potentially compromised by small study effects to arrive at any robust conclusion. More large-scale studies are required to clarify whether exercise-based injury prevention programmes are effective in adult recreational athletes. The protocol for this review was prospectively registered in the PROSPERO database (CRD42021232697).

Is an Exercise-Based Injury-Prevention Program Effective in Team Handball Players? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

To assess the effectiveness of exercise-based injury-prevention programs in preventing sports injuries in team handball players. Scopus, PubMed, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, and CINAHL from inception until April 2023. Studies were included if they were randomized controlled trials or prospective cohort studies, contained a population of competitive team handball players, included an intervention designed specifically to prevent or reduce the risk of team handball injuries, and reported injury incidence rates specific to team handball players. Two researchers independently evaluated studies for inclusion and assessed their methodological quality. Study design, intervention details, participant characteristics, and the number of injuries in each group were extracted from each study by 2 independent researchers. The outcome of interest was the incidence rate of injury. Injury data were classified into 5 groups: shoulder injuries, lower extremity injuries, knee injuries, anterior cruciate ligament injuries, and ankle injuries. Extracted data were analyzed using a random-effects model to compute the overall effect estimates of injury-prevention programs in reducing the risk of injuries. Odds ratios (ORs) with 95% CIs were calculated based on the number of injuries in each group. Meta-analyses were conducted independently for each injury classification. Results indicated that prevention programs reduced the risk of shoulder injuries (OR = 0.60; 95% CI = 0.42, 0.85; P = .004), lower extremity injuries (OR = 0.59; 95% CI = 0.37, 0.95; P = .03), knee injuries (OR = 0.53; 95% CI = 0.35, 0.78; P = .002), anterior cruciate ligament injuries (OR = 0.66; 95% CI = 0.45, 0.96; P = .03), and ankle injuries (OR = 0.57; 95% CI = 0.40, 0.81; P = .002) in team handball players. In team handball players, injury-prevention programs appear to effectively reduce the risk of shoulder, lower extremity, knee, ankle, and anterior cruciate ligament injuries.

Exercise-Based Injury Prevention in Amateur Soccer: A Survey of Current Practices of 52 Algerian Teams

This study aims to investigate the injury prevention exercises used by Algerian amateur soccer teams. The present study collected data from some Algerian amateur soccer teams (From the second to the seventh division), during the season 2021–2022 (n = 52). A four-section online survey was responded. Only 12% of the teams use FIFA 11+. They often use activation and coordination exercises (72.4%), dynamic stretching (69.8%), and agility exercises (68.6%), but they sometimes use sprint and high-speed running (52.4%), concentric (53%), isometric (59%), vertical plyometric (59.4%), horizontal plyometric (56.2%), core exercises (63.2%), static stretching (63.8%), multijoint exercises (63.2%), single leg strength and stability (61%), and they rarely use eccentric exercises (50.2%). Most coaches reported that they use these exercises during preparation and competition phases and they use them with all players. The investigation provided insight into the current use of injury prevention exercises by Algerian amateur teams, highlighting that several clubs used them, although there are differences between them in the extent of use. Moreover, this study provides information that may be useful for improving injury prevention strategies for amateur soccer teams.

Sports injury prevention programmes from the sports physical therapist's perspective: An international expert Delphi approach

ObjectiveTo provide consensus on how to plan, organize and implement exercise-based injury prevention program (IPP) in sports. DesignDelphi. SettingLimeSurvey platform. ParticipantsExperienced sports physical therapists from the International Federation of Sports Physical Therapy member countries. Main outcome measuresFactors related to sports IPP planning, organization and implementation. ResultsWe included 305 participants from 32 countries. IPP planning should be based on an athlete's injury history, on pre-season screening results, and on injury rates (respectively, 98%, 92%, 89% agreement). In total 97% participants agreed that IPP organization should depend on the athlete's age, 93% on the competition level, and 93% on the availability of low-cost materials. It was agreed that IPP should mainly be implemented in warm-up sessions delivered by the head or strength/conditioning coach, with physical training sessions and individual physical therapy sessions (respectively, 94%, 92%, 90% agreement). ConclusionStrong consensus was reached on (1) IPP based on the athlete's injury history, pre-season screening and evidence-based sports-specific injury rates; (2) IPP organization based on the athlete's age, competition level, and the availability of low-cost materials and (3) IPP implementation focussing on warm-up sessions implemented by the strength/conditioning coach, and/or individual prevention sessions by the physical therapist.

GIVING ATHLETES A VOICE TO IMPROVE PRIMARY OA PREVENTION PRACTICE IN SPORT

Purpose: Previous knee joint injury, such as an anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) rupture, is one of the strongest risk factors for the onset of knee osteoarthritis (OA). One in two people who sustain an ACL injury will develop knee OA before the age of 40. ACL injuries are common in high-risk sports that require athletes to jump, land and pivot, with women at 2-8 times greater risk than men. Primary OA prevention strategies, such as exercise-based ACL injury prevention programs, can reduce ACL injury among women by 67%.

Lower limb risk prevention in athletes: evaluation and strategies

Risk prevention of sports-related lower limb musculoskeletal injuries in adult and youth athletes is an important topic encompassing health and economic factors. For example, muscle injuries in professional football players could expose these athletes to recurrence, creating a significant economic problem for the football club. Such observations have led to the development of prevention programs, predominantly exercise-based injury prevention strategies, which may be multi-component or single-component. These programs focus on intrinsic risk factors, such as strength deficits, lack of flexibility, poor balance, coordination, endurance, previous injury, body size, anatomical alignment issues, foot shape, age, and sex. The FIFA 11+ program is an important example of an exercise-based program. It was developed under the leadership of the Fédération Internationale de Football Association with the aim of evaluating and, where necessary, implementing preventive training routines for soccer players. Despite the program being designed for soccer players, it has shown efficacy in other sports too. Many studies also emphasize the importance of identifying and avoiding extrinsic risk factors related to type and level of activity, shoe type, bracing equipment, etc. Understanding of the incidence, the severity, and the etiology of a specific injury is required in order to provide adequate prevention measures and to reduce the need for surgery. The present study focuses explicitly on identifying and evaluating possible interventions for lower limb injuries.

Exercise-Based Injury Prevention in High-Level and Professional Athletes: Narrative Review and Proposed Standard Operating Procedure for Future Lockdown-Like Contexts After COVID-19.

In regular times, implementing exercise-based injury prevention programs into the training routine of high-level and professional athletes represents a key and challenging aspect to decrease injury risk. Barriers to implementing such prevention programs have previously been identified such as lack of resources, logistic issues or motivation. The COVID-19 pandemic associated with restrictions on daily life dramatically impacted sports participation from training to competition. It is therefore reasonable to assume that such lockdown-like context has exacerbated the challenge to implement exercise-based injury prevention programs, potentially leading to a greater musculoskeletal injury risk. In this narrative review, recommendations are proposed for building an expertise- and evidence-based Standard Operating Procedure for injury prevention in lockdown-like contexts for high-level and professional athletes. The following recommendations can be provided: (1) assess the global and sport-specific risks in the light of the ongoing cause of isolation; (2) adapt remote training materials and programs; (3) ensure regular quality communication within the staff, between athletes and the staff as well as between athletes; (4) follow the athlete's mental well-being; and (5) plan for a safe return-to-sports as well as for an ongoing monitoring of the load-recovery balance. These key domains should further be addressed to comply with local policies, which are subject to change over time in each individual country. The use of these recommendations may improve the readiness of athletes, coaches, physicians and all sports stakeholders for future lockdown-like contexts.

Lower Limb Exercise-Based Injury Prevention Programs Are Effective in Improving Sprint Speed, Jumping, Agility and Balance: an Umbrella Review.

BackgroundExercise-based injury prevention programs for athletes have demonstrated consistent results in reducing the risk of lower limb injuries. Compliance is essential for program effectiveness and may be facilitated when these programs demonstrate positive effects on athletic performance.Hypothesis/PurposeTo summarize the findings of current systematic reviews on the effectiveness of lower limb injury prevention programs with multiple neuromuscular components on sports performance and quantify these effects. The authors hypothesized that injury prevention programs can improve certain sports performance criteria.Study DesignUmbrella systematic reviewMethodsSystematic reviews published in French, German, or English between January 1990 and January 2020 were identified in five databases. Only articles that investigated multicomponent lower limb injury prevention programs and their effects on the performance criteria of strength, balance, agility, jumping or speed by both amateur and professional athletes of all ages and sex were included. The methodological quality of the included systematic reviews was assessed by two reviewers independently using the Assessing the Methodological Quality of Systematic Reviews measurement tool.ResultsFive systematic reviews met the inclusion criteria. Overall, beneficial effects of multicomponent exercise-based injury prevention programs were observed for balance, agility, jumping and speed. While the effects on strength were more variable, there was a positive trend in favor of injury prevention programs.ConclusionInjury prevention programs with multiple neuromuscular exercise components demonstrate overall beneficial effects on the performance criteria of balance, agility, jumping or speed. These beneficial effects may be used to promote the implementation of such programs.Level of Evidence2a

Mechanism and situation of injuries in fast bowlers: A YouTube-based video analysis study

Objectives: The present study was conducted with the objective of identifying the cause of injuries in fast bowlers. Materials and Methods: The present study is a video analysis study, keywords such as “fast bowler’s injury,” “failure of bowling,” and “cricket injuries” were searched on YouTube. Bowling action was divided into four stages – Stage 1 – jump, Stage 2 – back foot contact, Stage 3 – front foot contact, and Stage 4 – follow-through. The type and timing of injury (stage) were noted after analyzing the videos. Results: Sixteen injuries were identified in five videos. It was observed that 15 athletes had acute injury to lower limb and 1 athlete had an acute injury to lower back. 13/16 injuries happened in Stage 2 and 3/16 injuries happened in Stage 4. Conclusion: Most of the injuries happened at the time of landing and follow-through. Therefore, improvement of ground conditions, especially around the bowling area, and addition of exercise-based injury prevention programs can reduce the risk of injuries. This is more important for young fast bowlers at the club levels and state levels, as proper training at an early stage, can prevent injuries in many young fast bowlers.

Modifying bowling kinematics in cricket pace bowlers with exercise-based injury prevention: A cluster-randomised controlled trial

ObjectivesUndesirable bowling kinematics can increase the risk of low back injury. This study investigated if an exercise-based injury prevention program (IPP) could modify bowling kinematics in community-level adolescent pace bowlers. DesignCluster-randomised controlled trial. MethodsPace bowlers from eight cricket organisations were cluster-randomised into an intervention or control group. At baseline and follow-up sessions biomechanical bowling data were collected. Between sessions, the intervention group completed an eight-week IPP while the control continued their normal cricket activity. Treatment effects (95% CI) were estimated with linear mixed models. ResultsThere were significant treatment effects favouring the intervention group for shoulder counter-rotation (−3.8°; −7.2° to −0.3°) and lateral trunk flexion relative to the pelvis (−2.2°; −4.0° to −0.5°). Shoulder counter-rotation also increased in the control group by 2.2° (Cohen’s d=0.22). There were no effects of the intervention on: lateral trunk flexion at front foot contact (FFC) (1.2°; −2.5° to 4.8°), lateral trunk flexion at ball release (BR) (−0.5°; −3.0° to 2.0°), pelvis rotation at FFC (0.9°; −4.0° to 2.2°), pelvis rotation at BR (−1.1°; −5.7° to 3.6°), front hip angle at FFC (1.6°; −3.6° to 6.7°), front hip angle at BR (−1.6°; −5.0° to 1.9°), front knee angle at FFC (−1.1°; −4.5° to 2.3°), front knee angle at BR (1.7°; −5.6° to 9.1°), or ball velocity (1.1kmh−1; −7.5kmh−1 to 9.7kmh−1). ConclusionsThe IPP maintained shoulder counter-rotation and lateral trunk flexion relative to the pelvis in the intervention group and this could attenuate injury risk. No treatment effects were observed for lower-limb kinematics.

Exercise-Based Strategies to Prevent Muscle Injury in Elite Footballers: A Systematic Review and Best Evidence Synthesis

Exercise-based strategies are used to prevent muscle injuries in football and studies on different competitive-level populations may provide different results. To evaluate the effectiveness of exercise-based muscle injury prevention strategies in adult elite football. A systematic search was conducted in PubMed (MEDLINE), Web of Science, Cochrane Library, and SPORTDiscuss (EBSCO). We considered only elite adult (> 16year-old) football players with no distinction for gender; the intervention to be any exercise/s performed with the target to prevent lower-limb muscle injuries; the comparison to be no injury prevention exercise undertaken; the outcome to be the number of injuries, injury incidence, and severity. We searched systematic reviews, randomized-controlled trials (RCTs), and non-randomized-controlled trials (NRCTs), limited for English language. Risk of bias was assessed using the Risk of Bias in Systematic Reviews tool, the Cochrane Collaboration's Tool for assessing risk of bias in RCTs, and the Risk of Bias in NRCTs of Interventions tool. 15 studies were included. Three systematic reviews showed inconsistent results, with one supporting (high risk of bias) and two showing insufficient evidence (low risk of bias) to support exercise-based strategies to prevent muscle injuries in elite players. Five RCTs and seven NRCTs support eccentric exercise, proprioception exercises, and a multi-dimensional component to aninjury prevention program; however, all were deemed to be at high/critical risk of bias. Only one RCT was found at low risk of bias and supported eccentric exercise for preventing groin problems. We found limited scientific evidence to support exercise-based strategies to prevent muscle injury in elite footballers. PROSPERO CRD42017077705.

Barriers and facilitators in implementing an exercise-based injury prevention program for string players.

Musicians are at risk of developing playing-related injuries/musculoskeletal problems - to the extent that several injury-prevention strategies have been employed by them. In order to ensure compliance and improve implementation strategies, this study explores the opinions of musicians and music tutors on the barriers and facilitators in implementing an injury prevention program for string players, and the perceptions of the first mentioned as to the practicality of such an exercise-based injury prevention program. This study employed a qualitative method (focus group discussion) to explore the opinions of musicians on exercise-based injury-prevention programs for string players and their implementation strategies. Content thematic analysis was used to analyze and interpret the data. Two music schools, with 11 musicians, participated in the study. The mean age and the mean years of experience of the participants were 28.2±6 years and 12.4±3.8 years respectively. The results of this study showed willingness in the musicians to adopt an exercise-based injury prevention program. However, the major challenge proved to be the time constraint of including an exercise program in the participants' normal practice and teaching routines. There is a willingness to explore possible exercise-based intervention programs to mitigate or prevent instrument-playing-related health problems. However, time constraints proved to be the major barrier to implementation. It was further concluded that consideration should be given to the duration of the intervention program and the mode to adopt in the implementation of the exercise program.

Exercise-based injury prevention for community-level adolescent cricket pace bowlers: A cluster-randomised controlled trial

ObjectivesTo investigate if an exercise-based injury prevention program (IPP) can modify risk factors for injury in community-level adolescent cricket pace bowlers. DesignCluster-randomised controlled trial. MethodsEight cricket organisations (training two times per week and no previous involvement in a structured IPP) participated in this cluster-randomised trial. Participants were aged 14–17 years, injury free, and not currently performing a rehabilitation/exercise program. Cricket organisations (clusters) were block-randomised by computerised number generation into an intervention group (performed an eight-week IPP at training) or control group (continued their usual cricket activity). Participants were not blinded to group allocation. Strength, endurance, and neuromuscular control were assessed at baseline and follow-up. Treatment effects were estimated using linear mixed models. ResultsSixty-five male adolescent pace bowlers (intervention n=32 and control n=33) were randomised. There were significant treatment effects favouring the intervention group for shoulder strength (90°/s) 0.05 (95% CI 0.02–0.09) Nm/kg, hamstring strength (60°/s) 0.32 (95% CI 0.13–0.50) Nm/kg, hip adductor strength dominant 0.40 (95% CI 0.26–0.55) Nm/kg and non-dominant 0.33 (95% CI 0.20–0.47) Nm/kg, SEBT reach distance dominant 3.80 (95% CI 1.63–6.04) percent of leg length (%LL) and non-dominant 3.60 (95% CI 1.43–5.78) %LL, and back endurance 20.4 (95% CI 4.80–36.0) seconds. No differences were observed for shoulder strength (180°/s) (p=0.09), hamstring strength (180°/s) (p=0.07), lumbopelvic stability (p=0.90), and single leg squat knee valgus angle (dominant p=0.06, non-dominant p=0.15). ConclusionsExercise-based IPPs can modify risk factors for injury in community-level adolescent pace bowlers. Future research is needed to confirm if IPPs can also reduce injury risk in this population.

General versus sports-specific injury prevention programs in athletes: A systematic review on the effect on injury rates.

IntroductionAnnually, 2 million sports-related injuries are reported in Germany of which athletes contribute to a large proportion. Multiple sport injury prevention programs designed to decrease acute and overuse injuries in athletes have been proven effective. Yet, the programs’ components, general or sports-specific, that led to these positive effects are uncertain. Despite not knowing about the superiority of sports-specific injury prevention programs, coaches and athletes alike prefer more specialized rather than generalized exercise programs. Therefore, this systematic review aimed to present the available evidence on how general and sports-specific prevention programs affect injury rates in athletes.MethodsPubMed and Web of Science were electronically searched throughout April 2018. The inclusion criteria were publication dates Jan 2006–Dec 2017, athletes (11–45 years), exercise-based injury prevention programs and injury incidence. The methodological quality was assessed with the Cochrane Collaboration assessment tools.ResultsOf the initial 6619 findings, 15 studies met the inclusion criteria. In addition, 13 studies were added from reference lists and external sources making a total of 28 studies. Of which, one used sports-specific, seven general and 20 mixed prevention strategies. Twenty-four studies revealed reduced injury rates. Of the four ineffective programs, one was general and three mixed.ConclusionThe general and mixed programs positively affect injury rates. Sports-specific programs are uninvestigated and despite wide discussion regarding the definition, no consensus was reached. Defining such terminology and investigating the true effectiveness of such IPPs is a potential avenue for future research.

Exercise-based injury prevention for adolescent pace bowlers

Exercise-based injury prevention for adolescent pace bowlers

Injury Prevention Strategies for Adolescent Cricket Pace Bowlers

Adolescent cricket pace bowlers are prone to non-contact shoulder, low back and lower-limb injuries. Exercise-based injury prevention programmes (IPPs) are effective for reducing non-contact injuries in athletes; however, a specific programme for adolescent pace bowlers has not been published. This paper therefore seeks to provide a rationale for the development of an exercise-based IPP specific for adolescent pace bowlers. It also outlines design principles and provides an example exercise programme that can be implemented at the community level. In addition, the paper addresses other injury prevention techniques concerned with the prescription of appropriate bowling loads and the modification of poor bowling biomechanics. Performing an exercise-based IPP before cricket training could reduce injury rates in adolescent pace bowlers. Eccentric strengthening exercises can be employed to target injuries to the posterior shoulder muscles, hip adductors and hamstring muscles. The risk of low back, knee and ankle injury could also be reduced with the inclusion of dynamic neuromuscular control exercises and trunk extensor endurance exercises. Other prevention strategies that need to be considered include the modification of poor bowling biomechanics, such as shoulder counter-rotation and lateral trunk flexion. Coaches and players should also aim to quantify bowling load accurately and coaches should use this information to prescribe appropriate individualised bowling loads. Specifically, players would benefit from avoiding both long periods of low load and acute periods when load is excessively high. Future evidence is needed to determine the effectiveness of the example programme outlined in this paper. It would also be beneficial to investigate whether the modification of bowling biomechanics is achievable at the non-elite level and if bowling load can be accurately measured and manipulated within a community-level population.