Excretory System Research Articles

Analysis of Junior High School Students’ Misconceptions About the Human Excretion Using a Four-Tier Diagnostic Test

This study aimed to measure middle school students’ conceptions and misconceptions related to human excretion using a four-tiered diagnostic test. Using a cross-sectional survey design, responses of 113 eighth-grade students, convenience sampled from two schools in Bandung were collected. A four-tiered instrument was developed specifically for the focus of this study and the data analyzed below consists of test results and interviews with teachers. The findings indicate that students’ conceptions of the human excretory system fall into several categories: scientific knowledge (SK) at 46.90%, false positive (FP) at 13.09%, false negative (FN) at 6.13%, misconception (M) at 20.45%, and lack of knowledge (LK) at 13.43%. The most common misconceptions relate to diseases and disorders (38%) and sweating and body thermoregulation (31%). These misconceptions may arise due to factors such as students’ lack of enthusiasm for learning and limited engagement during the learning process. Consequently, there is a need for improved teaching approaches to address misconceptions associated with human excretion and to foster a more comprehensive scientific understanding among students.

The impact of microplastics polystyrene on the microscopic structure of mouse intestine, tight junction genes and gut microbiota.

Microplastics, which are tiny plastic particles less than 5 mm in diameter, are widely present in the environment, have become a serious threat to aquatic life and human health, potentially causing ecosystem disorders and health problems. The present study aimed to investigate the effects of microplastics, specifically microplastics-polystyrene (MPs-PS), on the structural integrity, gene expression related to tight junctions, and gut microbiota in mice. A total of 24 Kunming mice aged 30 days were randomly assigned into four groups: control male (CM), control female (CF), PS-exposed male (PSM), and PS-exposed female (PSF)(n = 6). There were significant differences in villus height, width, intestinal surface area, and villus height to crypt depth ratio (V/C) between the PS group and the control group(C) (p <0.05). Gene expression analysis demonstrated the downregulation of Claudin-1, Claudin-2, Claudin-15, and Occludin, in both duodenum and jejunum of the PS group (p < 0.05). Analysis of microbial species using 16S rRNA sequencing indicated decreased diversity in the PSF group, as well as reduced diversity in the PSM group at various taxonomic levels. Beta diversity analysis showed a significant difference in gut microbiota distribution between the PS-exposed and C groups (R2 = 0.113, p<0.01), with this difference being more pronounced among females exposed to MPs-PS. KEGG analysis revealed enrichment of differential microbiota mainly involved in seven signaling pathways, such as nucleotide metabolism(p<0.05). The relative abundance ratio of transcriptional pathways was significantly increased for the PSF group (p<0.01), while excretory system pathways were for PSM group(p<0.05). Overall findings suggest that MPs-PS exhibit a notable sex-dependent impact on mouse gut microbiota, with a stronger effect observed among females; reduced expression of tight junction genes may be associated with dysbiosis, particularly elevated levels of Prevotellaceae.

Development of E-LKPD Based on Problem Based Learning on Excretory System Material for High Schools

Learning carried out using learning tools in the form of printed LKPD makes students easily bored. Lack of use of technology in learning also often makes students less motivated. Therefore, this research aims to develop more innovative learning tools and see their feasibility which will be validated by media experts and material experts. The product developed is a PBL-based E-LKPD on excretory system material. This research was carried out at the Madrasah Aliyah Laboratory in Jambi City. This research is development research (R&amp;D) with the ADDIE development model. Data collection techniques use observation, interviews and documentation. The instruments used were questionnaires and teacher assessment sheets. The trial was carried out on 6 students and 15 students. Material validation was 87.5% in the "very good" category. The media validator assessment was 73.6% in the "very good" category. The biology teacher's assessment was 89.7% in the "very good" category so it can be tested on students. The small group's response was 81.8% in the "very good" category and the large group's response was 88% in the very good category. In this research, the implementation stage is just knowing the students' responses and it is hoped that implementation will be carried out in future research. Thus, it can be concluded that the development of E-LKPD based on Problem Based Learning on Excretory System Material for Class XI Students is suitable for use in the learning process.

Feline Calicivirosis in the catteries

Cat breeding has become very popular nowadays. The presence of these animals in catteries, especially in conditions of imperfect compliance with sanitary and hygienic requirements, often causes outbreaks of viral diseases, the causative agents of which are transmitted mainly by the aerogenic transmission mechanism. Calicivirosis is the most common kennel disease; it can occur as a mono-infection and can also be associated with other viral respiratory diseases. The study aimed to evaluate the epizootic features and clinical course of feline calicivirus in catteries. It was found that the disease's stationary focus was in the experimental cattery. Depending on the year's season, the morbidity increase begins in April, peaks (40 %) in July, and gradually decreases until September. The most vulnerable age group is kittens aged 2–6 months due to imperfect immune mechanisms at this age. The disease occurs mainly manifestly in this age group, with characteristic pronounced clinical signs. Sick cats have sub febrile or pyretic fever, lack of appetite, and salivation with viscous saliva. Ulcers develop on the mucous membranes of the oral cavity. Also, erosions and ulcers are noted in the nasal mirror and on the mucous membrane of the larynx. There was conjunctivitis with serous to catarrhal-purulent exudate. Laboratory tests revealed leukopenia, acceleration of erythrocyte sedimentation rate, left shift of the nucleus, lymphocytosis, and monocytosis, which indirectly determine the viral disease and stimulation of immune functions, and the development of a systemic inflammatory response. Biochemical tests revealed the development of intoxication syndrome, hepatitis liver failure, and renal failure. The data obtained prove the systemic nature of the impact of calicivirus infection, the development of complications in the form of a systemic inflammatory response, which affects various organs and systems, particularly the liver and excretory system. The development of multiorgan pathology in feline calicivirus infection requires an integrated approach to treatment, including pathogenetic and symptomatic measures in the treatment protocol.

Transcript-Based Lesson Analysis: Reward and Punishment Using Wordwall.net Toward Students’ Self-Efficacy in Learning Excretory System

Transcript-Based Lesson Analysis: Reward and Punishment Using Wordwall.net Toward Students’ Self-Efficacy in Learning Excretory System

The expression of Catsup in the hindgut is essential for zinc homeostasis in Drosophila melanogaster.

Zinc excretion is crucial for zinc homeostasis. However, the mechanism of zinc excretion has not been well characterized. Zinc homeostasis in Drosophila seems well conserved to mammals. In this study, we screened all members of the zinc transporters ZnT (SLC30) and Zip (SLC39) for their potential roles in Drosophilahindgut, an insect organ that belongs to the excretory system. The results indicated that Catecholamines up (Catsup, CG10449), a ZIP member localized to the Golgi, is responsible for zinc homeostasis in the hindgut of Drosophila hindgut-specific knockdown of Catsup leads to a developmental arrest in the larval stage, which could be rescued well by human ZIP7. Further study suggested that Catsup RNAi in the hindgut reduced zinc levels in the excretory system (containing the Malpighian tubule and hindgut) but exhibited systemic zinc overload. Besides, more calculi were observed in the Malpighian tubules of Catsup RNAi flies. The developmental arrest and calculi in the Malpighian tubules of hindgut-specific Catsup RNAi flies could be rescued by dietary zinc restriction but hypersensitivity to zinc. These results will help us understand the fundamental process of zinc excretion in higher eukaryotes.

Ammonia transport in the excretory system of mosquito larvae (Aedes aegypti): Rh protein expression and the transcriptome of the rectum

The role of the mosquito excretory organs (Malpighian tubules, MT and hindgut, HG) in ammonia transport as well as expression and function of the Rhesus (Rh protein) ammonia transporters within these organs was examined in Aedes aegypti larvae and adult females. Immunohistological examination revealed that the Rh proteins are co-localized with V-type H+-ATPase (VA) to the apical membranes of MT and HG epithelia of both larvae and adult females. Of the two Rh transporter genes present in A. aegypti, AeRh50-1 and AeRh50-2, we show using quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) and an RNA in-situ hybridization (ISH) assay that AeRh50-1 is the predominant Rh protein expressed in the excretory organs of larvae and adult females. Further assessment of AeRh50-1 function in larvae and adults using RNAi (i.e. dsRNA-mediated knockdown) revealed significantly decreased [NH4+] (mmoll-1) levels in the secreted fluid of larval MT which does not affect overall NH4+ transport rates, as well as significantly decreased NH4+ flux rates across the HG (haemolymph to lumen) of adult females. We also used RNA sequencing to identify the expression of ion transporters and enzymes within the rectum of larvae, of which limited information currently exists for this important osmoregulatory organ. Of the ammonia transporters in A. aegypti, AeRh50-1 transcript is most abundant in the rectum thus validating our immunohistochemical and RNA ISH findings. In addition to enriched VA transcript (subunits A and d1) in the rectum, we also identified high Na+-K+-ATPase transcript (α subunit) expression which becomes significantly elevated in response to HEA, and we also found enriched carbonic anhydrase 9, inwardly rectifying K+ channel Kir2a, and Na+-coupled cation-chloride (Cl-) co-transporter CCC2 transcripts. Finally, the modulation in excretory organ function and/or Rh protein expression was examined in relation to high ammonia challenge, specifically high environmental ammonia (HEA) rearing of larvae. NH4+ flux measurements using the scanning-ion selective electrode (SIET) technique revealed no significant differences in NH4+ transport across organs comprising the alimentary canal of larvae reared in HEA vs freshwater. Further, significantly increased VA activity, but not NKA, was observed in the MT of HEA-reared larvae. Relatively high Rh protein immunostaining persists within the hindgut epithelium, as well as the ovary, of females at 24-48h post blood meal corresponding with previously demonstrated peak levels of ammonia formation. These data provide new insight into the role of the excretory organs in ammonia transport physiology and the contribution of Rh proteins in mediating ammonia movement across the epithelia of the MT and HG, and the first comprehensive examination of ion transporter and channel expression in the mosquito rectum.

Features of clearance of exogenous sorbitol in laboratory animals

Clearance plays an important role in determining the functional activity of organs and systems that are directly involved in the metabolization and removal of various exogenous substances. It is also an important indicator for measuring the effect of xenobiotic dosage on their concentration in biological fluids over various time periods, which allows the use of these parameters for diagnostic purposes. However, methods for determining clearance are directly dependent on the removal characteristics of the substance. The purpose of this study is to conduct an experimental study aimed at establishing the clearance of exogenous sorbitol in laboratory animals with the absence of pathologies of the hepatobiliary and excretory systems. Having analyzed the data obtained, we concluded that clearance rates were stable after enteral administration of sorbitol in clinically healthy animals, i.e. with each time interval passed, the concentration of sorbitol decreases by a certain value. The clearance indicator was characterized by positive values, which indicates that exogenous sorbitol is not retained in biological fluids. The results of the study showed stable and comparable interindividual clearance rates, which indicates the linearity of the process of sorbitol elimination in the absence of pathologies. A positive feature of this reduction is its predictability and the possibility of using this information for clinical purposes. However, it should be noted that the linear decrease in the concentration of an exogenous substance may be disrupted in some cases, for example, in the presence of pathological conditions; therefore, a further direction of research will be to study changes in the pharmacokinetic parameters (in particular, clearance) of sorbitol in various pathologies of the hepatobiliary system.

Covid-19’s rampage in the human body

The Covid-19 (or Coronavirus Disease-19) was first detected in Wuhan, in the Hubei Province of China. Its causative agent got named as SARS-CoV-2 (or Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus- 2) in 11 February, 2020 by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV). This virus is observed to infect the respiratory system in most patients. In this review, the aim was to discuss the potential of SARS-CoV-2 of affecting almost all the major organ systems of the body and to highlight the importance of interaction between spike glycoprotein of the virus and ACE2 receptor on a host cell. An analysis was made on the gfindings of the different kinds of manifestations of Covid-19 and 42 resources, including: scientific articles and websites, were used for writing this review. The resources were searched on the internet based on a set of keywords. In this review, first the pathophysiology and manifestations of the virus, based on target organ, are discussed. Later, the underlying mechanisms of infection for these organs are compared and a conclusion is drawn. Finally, few of the research works in progress were listed, which help highlight the importance of spike-ACE2 interactions. The result found was that: SARS-CoV-2 is capable of severely affecting: Central nervous system, Respiratory System, Skin, Eyes, Excretory system, Gastrointestinal system, Liver, Circulatory system and Reproductive system. The common mechanism of cellular entry of the virus has been observed to be: Interaction between spike glycoprotein with the ACE-2 receptor. While, many groups are currently conducting research based on this topic, hardly a hand few drugs have been approved for use. Thus, the conclusion is that: research should be focused on developing an approved, potent drug or therapy to inhibit the spike glycoprotein-ACE2 receptor interaction in order to tackle the raging pandemic.

Development of e-worksheet based on search, solve, create, and share (SSCS) Islamic context to improve science process skills on excretory system material

Electronic student worksheets (e-worksheet) are needed as alternative teaching materials in learning. This study aims to produce teaching materials in the form of e-worksheet based on Search Solve Create and Share (SSCS) Islamic context to improve science process skills on class XI excretory system material that is worthy of the results of validity, responses of students and biology teachers. This research was conducted at MAN 1 Bogor. The research model used is a 4D model (Define, Design, Develop, Disseminate), but in research only to the development stage (Develop). The e-worksheet teaching materials developed are tested for validity. The results of validity tests by design and media experts obtained 89% in the very decent category, material expert assessments obtained 84% in the very feasible categories, and expert assessments of Islamic religious education obtained 100% in the very feasible categories. The results of student responses obtained percentages of 89% in limited trials and 89.7% in expanded trials. Based on the findings of the research results, it can be concluded that E e-worksheet based on Search Solve, Create and Share (SSCS), an Islamic context to improve science process skills on the excretory system material developed, is very feasible to be used and applied to biology learning.

Developing of health literacy instrument on human kidney for senior high school student

Health literacy plays a pivotal role in shaping an individual's adoption of a healthy lifestyle, particularly among students transitioning into adolescence and adulthood. Hence, integrating health literacy into educational curricula is imperative. For instance, the study of the human kidney excretory system, which necessitates the use of measuring instruments, can serve as a platform to enhance students' health literacy skills within the realm of biology education. This study was conducted to develop and determine the feasibility of human kidney health literacy instruments. The research method used in this study is ADDIE development research which consists of 5 stages, including (1) preliminary needs analysis (2) product design (3) Development (4) Implementation, and (5) evaluation. The trial results stated that the instrument was feasible to use with a linguist assessment of 9.8% very feasible category, and a material expert of 91% very feasible category. The empirical validity test was conducted with a limited trial to 47 students of Al-Azhar 9 Yogyakarta High School and the results showed that 92% of the items were declared valid with a high reliability value of 0.7. This study produced 16 statement items on the attitude aspect, 6 items on the knowledge aspect, and items on the skill aspect. The total question items produced in this study were 24 question items that were valid and feasible to use as a tool to improve the quality of education.

Investigation the mechanism of iron overload-induced colonic inflammation following ferric citrate exposure

Iron overload occurs due to excessive iron intake compared to the body’s demand, leading to iron deposition and impairment of multiple organ functions. Our previous study demonstrated that chronic oral administration of ferric citrate (FC) caused colonic inflammatory injury. However, the precise mechanism underlying this inflammatory response remains unclear. The current study aims to investigate the mechanism by which iron overload induced by FC exposure leads to colonic inflammation. To accomplish this, mice were orally exposed to three different concentrations of FC (71 mg/kg/bw (L), 143 mg/kg/bw (M) and 286 mg/kg/bw (H)) for continuous 16 weeks, with the control group receiving ultrapure water (C). Exposure to FC caused disturbances in the excretory system, altered colonic flora alpha diversity, and enriched pathogenic bacteria, such as Mucispirillum, Helicobacter, Desulfovibrio, and Shigella. These changes led to structural disorders of the colonic flora and an inflammatory response phenotype characterized by inflammatory cells infiltration, atrophy of intestinal glands, and irregular thickening of the intestinal wall. Mechanistic studies revealed that FC-exposure activated the NF-κB signaling pathway by up-regulating TLR4, MyD88, and NF-κB mRNA levels and protein expression. This activation resulted in increased production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, further contributing to the colonic inflammation. Additionally, in vitro experiments in SW480 cells confirmed the activation of NF-κB signaling pathway by FC exposure, consistent with the in vivo findings. The significance of this study lies in its elucidation of the mechanism by which iron overload caused by FC exposure leads to colonic inflammation. By identifying the role of pathogenic bacteria and the NF-κB signaling pathway, this study could potentially offer a crucial theoretical foundation for the research on iron overload, as well as provide valuable insights for clinical iron supplementation.

Science Teachers’ Teaching Competency: Educational Background versus Teaching Experience

Teaching science requires specific competencies that trained teachers in their previous education level. Teachers' educational backgrounds influence the implementation of science learning. Besides, the teaching experience is also an essential factor in determining the quality of science learning. This study aimed to identify how science teachers' educational background influences their way of teaching science. The data was obtained by observing three science teachers from Biology Education, Physics Education, and Biology when teaching the topics of Vibration and Excretory systems. The video recordings were then analyzed by using qualitative analysis software. The result showed that teachers from Biology Education backgrounds taught the Vibration topic exceeded the science teacher who had Physics Education degrees. According to teaching period and professional development program records, the teacher who had been teaching for 35 years outperformed the other two teachers. Therefore, science teachers are recommended to increase their participation in teacher training to improve science teaching skills.

The organization of the muscle system of the causative agent of dicrocoeliosis, Dicrocoelium dendriticum

AbstractThe musculature of parasitic flatworms plays a central role in locomotory movement, attachment to the host, and in the function of the digestive, reproductive, and excretory systems. We examine for the first time the muscle system of the flatworm Dicrocoelium dendriticum, a causative agent of the parasitic disease dicrocoeliosis, by use of fluorescently labeled phalloidin and confocal laser scanning microscopy. Somatic musculature of D. dendriticum consists of the circular, longitudinal, and diagonal muscles. The distribution of the muscle fibers in the body wall differed among the anterior, middle, and posterior body regions of the worm. The musculature of the attachment organs, the oral and ventral suckers, includes several types of muscles: the external equatorial and meridional muscles, internal circular and semicircular muscles, and radial muscles. Inside of the ventral sucker the diagonally located muscles were revealed and the supplementary u‐shaped muscles were found adjoined to the base of the sucker from outside. The musculature of the internal organs composed of the excretory, reproductive, and digestive systems were characterized. Our results increase our knowledge of the morphology of trematodes and the arrangement of their muscle system.

The Effect of Mobile Learning on Excretion System Materials on Cognitive Load and Student Concept Mastery

The fast development of internet and mobile technologies prompt this study. Mobile learning technology is accessible and convenient, as students can use advantageous devices to acquire knowledge at any time and location. Mobile learning can effectively meet students' educational requirements in acquiring knowledge. Furthermore, the design of learning materials that are inappropriate for mobile learning might be attributed to one of the reasons of students' cognitive stress. The purpose of this study is to see how mobile learning (Edmodo) on excretory system content affects cognitive load and student concept mastering. This research used a quasi-experimental method consisting of two classes: the experimental class (using mobile learning) and the control class (conventional learning). The instrument used to measure cognitive load consisted of questionnaires of intrinsic cognitive load, extraneous cognitive, and germane cognitive load, while the instrument for mastery of concepts consisted of pre-test and post-test. In addition, there was also a student response questionnaire to review the use of mobile learning in the experimental class. The data that had been collected were analyzed by a descriptive statistic method using SPSS 25.0. The results show that students in both classes have a cognitive load that can be controlled, but the cognitive load in the experimental class was more controllable than in the control class. The result of mastery of concept showed that the experimental class was higher than the control class, with a post-test significance value of 0.001 &lt;0.05. Thus, it can be concluded that mobile learning influence the excretory system material on the cognitive load and mastery of students' concepts.

Developing STEM-PjBL worksheet to lift students' critical, creative, and computational thinking skill

This research aims to develop STEM-PjBL worksheets on eight-gr ade human excretory system material to lift students' creative, critical, and computational thinking skills. This R&amp;D research uses the Borg &amp; Gall model. The data collection instruments were interview sheets, validation sheets, questionnaire sheets, and also tests (pretest and posttest). The results show that the STEM-PjBL worksheet is feasible and practical as a learning instructional. The data on the effectiveness of learning media obtained an N-gain score of 88.7 (N-gain &gt;70) and is included in the high category, this shows that STEM-PjBL worksheets can improve students' critical thinking skills. The average score for all aspects of the creative thinking assessment was 81% (creative) and the average score for computational thinking skills was 80% (very high). These results show that STEM-PjBL worksheets can improve students' creative, critical, and computational thinking abilities.

A Case Study of Students’ Motivation in Learning Human Excretion System

This research investigates the influence of problem-based learning (PBL) on students' motivation within the context of the excretory system topic in the classroom. Despite introducing various innovative teaching models, student motivation still needs to improve to learn science, prompting the need for practical pedagogical approaches. This study used a case study design, utilizing validated observation sheets and questionnaires as instruments for data collection. With 25 students and one science teacher involved as a sample, qualitative and quantitative data are collected and analyzed through narrative descriptive and transcript analysis and the Rasch model, specifically employing Wright Map and Scalograms value. The findings indicate inadequate implementation of problem-based learning in the teaching excretory system, resulting in persistently low student motivation. Instead of implementing a problem-based learning model, the teacher adopts a teacher-centered approach to deliver the excretory system topic. This leads to minimal active student involvement and engagement in teaching and learning.

Microanatomy and ultrastructure of the nervous system of adult Renicola parvicaudatus (Digenea: Renicolidae).

The digenean complex life cycle includes various morphological forms with different locomotory and behavioral activities, and the functional specialization of their nervous system is of importance for the transmission of these parasites. Adult digeneans acquire many adaptive features associated with the final settlement in a vertebrate host. Our study describes the general morphology and ultrastructure of the nervous system of the adult renicolid digenean Renicola parvicaudatus parasitizing the renal tubules of herring gulls. Using immunocytochemical and electron microscopic methods, we identified the distinctive characteristics of ganglia and synapses in the studied species. A comparative analysis of the organization of the nervous system of adult individuals and their continuously-swimming stylet cercariae revealed a number of stage-related differences in the composition of ganglia, the distribution of serotonin- and FMRFamide-immunoreactive neurons, the cytomorphology of neuron somata and free sensory endings. Thus, in adults, the presence of FMRFamide-positive neuron somata, accessory muscle bundles in the ganglionic cortex, and eight types of neuronal vesicles was detected, but no glia-like elements were identified. Their neurons are characterized by a larger volume of cytoplasm and also show greater ultrastructural diversity. Although the sensory papillae of adults do not vary in their external morphology as much as those of larvae, their sensory bulbs are more diverse in cytomorphology. Following our previous data on the "support" cell processes related to various tissues of the larvae and considered as glia-like structures, we also briefly present the identified features of the parenchyma, attachment organs and excretory system of adult individuals. The excretory system of adult R. parvicaudatus is characterized by the presence of unique terminal cells with several flame tufts, which are not typical either for the larvae of this species or for other digeneans studied so far. We also used molecular phylogenetic analysis to clarify species identification.

Comparative study of the gut microbial community structure of Spodoptera frugiperda and Spodoptera literal (Lepidoptera).

Spodoptera frugiperda, the fall armyworm is a destructive invasive pest, and S. litura the tobacco cutworm, is a native species closely related to S. frugiperda. The gut microbiota plays a vital role in insect growth, development, metabolism and immune system. Research on the competition between invasive species and closely related native species has focused on differences in the adaptability of insects to the environment. Little is known about gut symbiotic microbe composition and its role in influencing competitive differences between these two insects. We used a culture-independent approach targeting the 16S rRNA gene of gut bacteria of 5th instar larvae of S. frugiperda and S. litura. Larvae were reared continuously on maize leaves for five generations. We analyzed the composition, abundance, diversity, and metabolic function of gut microbiomes of S. frugiperda and S. litura larvae. Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, and Bacteroidetes were the dominant bacterial phyla in both species. Enterococcus, ZOR0006, Escherichia, Bacteroides, and Lactobacillus were the genera with the highest abundance in S. frugiperda. Enterococcus, Erysipelatoclostridium, ZOR0006, Enterobacter, and Bacteroides had the highest abundance in S.litura. According to α-diversity analysis, the gut bacterial diversity of S. frugiperda was significantly higher than that of S.litura. KEGG analysis showed 15 significant differences in metabolic pathways between S. frugiperda and S. litura gut bacteria, including transcription, cell growth and death, excretory system and circulatory system pathways. In the same habitat, the larvae of S. frugiperda and S. litura showed significant differences in gut bacterial diversity and community composition. Regarding the composition and function of gut bacteria, the invasive species S. frugiperda may have a competitive advantage over S. litura. This study provides a foundation for developing control strategies for S. frugiperda and S. litura.

Is Irisin Really a Neuroendocrine (F)actor?

Irisin was identified as a peptide hormone in 2012. The most important known physiological effect of irisin is that it activates uncoupling protein 1 and converts white adipose tissue to brown adipose tissue. Due to this effect of irisin on adipose tissue, it was thought that it may be closely related to obesity, feeding behavior and energy expenditure, and interest in research in this direction has increased. In later studies, evidence was obtained that irisin, in addition to these effects, has also effects on the reproductive system, nervous system, cardiovascular and excretory systems. Recent studies have determined that irisin has anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic properties, and it has been reported that pathologies such as obesity, endocrine and metabolic diseases, Alzheimer's disease, chronic kidney disease, cardiovascular diseases, atherosclerosis and cancer may be associated with changes irisin levels. The fact that irisin is expressed in different tissues other than muscle and fat tissue and exhibits autocrine and endocrine functions, as well as being expressed in different regions of the brain and participating in neuroendocrine processes in these regions, brings to mind that irisin may be a new neuroendocrine factor. In this review, we present information that will constitute evidence that irisin is a real neuroendocrine factor.