Exclusive Economic Zone Research Articles

ALTERNATIVE SANCTION TO IMPRISONMENT IN LAW ENFORCEMENT AGAINST ILLEGAL FISHING PERPETRATORS IN INDONESIA'S EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC ZONE

The problem of law enforcement against illegal fishing perpetrators in Indonesia's Exclusive Economic Zone or ZEEI needs to find a solution, especially related to imprisonment which cannot be imposed on the perpetrator. Practically, the imposition of fines also cannot be applied optimally with various existing obstacles. It is of course becomes a problem when the coastal state wants to impose a proper punishment for the perpetrators of illegal fishing in the ZEEI. In other words, when the coastal state wants to punish the perpetrators of illegal fishing, but what happens is a legal vacuum that causes the perpetrators of illegal fishing to go unpunished. The resulted of this, the perpetrators of illegal fishing in Indonesia not feeling threatened and deterred from repeating their actions. Based on this background, the focus of the problem in this study examines the urgency of alternative sanctions to imprisonment for illegal fishing perpetrators in ZEEI and alternative sanctions to imprisonment as a model of criminal sanctions policy against illegal fishing perpetrators in ZEEI. The problem approach in this study uses several approaches such as the statute approach, analytical approach, conceptual approach, comparative approach, and case approach.The results of the study shows that alternative sanctions to imprisonment as a model of criminal sanctions policy against illegal fishing perpetrators in ZEEI can optimize community services orders. The perpetrators of illegal fishing in the ZEEI must be responsible for their actions by taking immediate steps to correct the results of their actions through social work. The idea of community services orders that can be done by illegal fishing perpetrators is to actively work in marine and fishery conservation programs, such as coral reef conservation, mangrove planting, sweeping garbage in the sea or beach, and so on. This is due to the impact of illegal fishing itself which damages the environment and fishery ecosystem.

Hezbollah's Coercion And the Israel‐Lebanon Maritime Deal

AbstractIn late 2022, Israel and Lebanon signed a US‐brokered maritime agreement establishing their permanent maritime boundary and exclusive economic zones, and regulating their rights to gas exploration in the eastern Mediterranean. Preceding the agreement was a sustained coercive‐diplomacy campaign by Hezbollah. Between June and October, the organization conveyed overt and covert threats, and it pursued actions that were unprecedented in the Israel‐Hezbollah conflict: openly threatening to target Israel's entire gas production and risk all‐out war if Israel proceeded with its plan to unilaterally extract gas from the contested Karish gas field. A textbook case of coercive diplomacy, Hezbollah's maneuver was calculated and deliberate, which reflects the group's strategic expertise. Drawing on open‐source materials and public statements in Arabic and Hebrew, this article analyzes Hezbollah's coercive‐diplomacy campaign and examines its implications for escalation scenarios between Israel and its central military opponent.

Coastal State Jurisdiction over Living Resources in the Exclusive Economic Zone, written by Camille Goodman

Coastal State Jurisdiction over Living Resources in the Exclusive Economic Zone, written by Camille Goodman

What would Article 5.1 of the 2022 WTO Ministerial Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies accomplish?

The WTO Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies adopted in June 2022 is potentially a step forward for ocean sustainability. Yet, its success in removing fisheries subsidies contributing to illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing, and overfishing more generally, will depend on its scope, its effective interpretation, and broad implementation. Here we focus on Article 5.1, which, in its narrowest interpretation prohibits fishing subsidies in areas not covered by Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) and Regional Fishery Management Organizations (RFMOs) but in its broadest interpretation prohibits subsidies for any unregulated fisheries in the high seas. This study finds that only ∼1.35% of the high seas are not spatially covered by at least one RFMO, and most of that area are frozen parts of the high seas with little to no fishing. This means that if Article 5.1 is interpreted to mean the area of the high seas not managed under RFMOs, then the effect of Article 5.1 will be minimal or non-existent even if the article is fully implemented. Many RFMOs, however, are only mandated to regulate a few species, such as tunas. Much of the potential impact of Article 5.1 thus could rest on the definition of the ‘competence of a relevant RFMO,’ which we argue should be defined based on both area and species of competence. To make the Article meaningful in terms of removing harmful subsidies that impact the sustainability of high seas fish stocks, additional clarifying provisions to Article 5.1 to reaffirm that it applies to both unregulated areas and species outside of the competence of relevant RFMOs are needed.

Malaysia-Thailand Joint Development Agreement

1. Malaysia and Thailand have been very pragmatic in resolving the overlapping claims of the continental shelf in the Gulf of Siam or otherwise known as the Gulf of Thailand, by creating a joint development area (JDA). The JDA between Malaysia and Thailand could be taken as a model for a peaceful resolution of overlapping claim areas in other parts of the world, especially in the South China Sea. The fact that the strong political will by both Malaysia’s and Thai’s political leaders led to a peaceful resolution of the overlapping claims, without ceding claimed sovereignty and without prejudice to any future claim is important, not only for Malaysia and Thailand, but also for the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), as both countries are the founding members of the ASEAN in 1967. 2. The Gulf of Thailand is a semi-enclosed arm of the South China Sea, bounded by Cambodia, Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam. All these littoral States have made claims to the extended zones of maritime jurisdictions, namely the continental shelf and the exclusive economic zones (EEZ), within the scope of the United Nations Convention of the Law of the Sea 1983 (UNCLOS).1 The Gulf of Thailand is also known to contain deposits of petroleum materials, making it more important for the littoral States.

Ocean materialities and the ontologies of ocean conservation in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction: The Costa Rica Thermal Dome

Bordering sovereign space is a crucial tenet of contemporary governance approaches. Such rationalities of delineating and fixating space into governable territory forms the convention of conservation regimes. How well have these rationalities translated into conservation efficacy? This article unpacks this question within the Thermal Dome, a marine biodiversity hotspot in the Eastern Tropical Pacific, off the western coast of Central America. Here, wind and ocean currents interact to create an upwelling system of cold, nutrient rich waters creating rich and productive waters, and hence an area of ecological and commercial value. It is dynamic, crossing the exclusive economic zones of various coastal states, further extending into Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction. Unfortunately, conservation in the Thermal Dome has been fragmented, uncoordinated and ineffective. This article explores how the limited efficacy of conservation governance in the Thermal Dome arises from the land-based ontologies dominating terrestrial conservation. Using perspectives in ocean materiality, this essay demonstrates that the fluidity and seasonality of the Thermal Dome challenges these norms, reflecting the need to incorporate the uniquities of the ocean into how cross-border conservation in the high seas is understood. Such efforts open channels to build and expand on practices in Ecologically or Biologically Significant Marine Areas (EBSA), in ways that improve the sharing of technical capacities, scientific knowledges, and coordination frameworks from the Dome-up.

HAK BERDAULAT PEMERINTAH INDONESIA DALAM MEMBERIKAN PENAMAAN LAUT NATUNA MENURUT HUKUM INTERNASIONAL (LAUT NATUNA UTARA VS LAUT CINA SELATAN)

The South China Sea is a sea area located south of China and directly borders with other countries in the Asia Pacific and countries in Southeast Asia. The Chinese government claims unilaterally its territorial territory on the basis of Nine Dash Line. Often based on this it becomes a dispute or conflict between neighboring countries. In order to affirm the sovereign territory in the North Natuna waters, the Government of Indonesia named the North Natuna Sea the South China Sea which is included in the Exclusive Economic Zone of the Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia. The purpose of this research is to find out the history of the North Natuna Sea and Indonesia's right to name the North Natuna Sea. This study uses normative research methods. The reason the Chinese government implemented Nine Dash Line departing from the history that they claim in control of the South China Sea, which actually based on international law or provisions in UNCLOS 1982 cannot be legalized. The Indonesian government has the legal right to be able to name the North Natuna Sea, which is still part of the Indonesian Exclusive Zone

UKRAINE'S BLUE ECONOMY: POTENTIAL AND PROSPECTS FOR INTEGRATION INTO THE EUROPEAN SPACE

The purpose of the work is to analyze the state of affairs in the Ukrainian blue economy. This study limited its scope to regions that are not currently occupied by the Russian army. These are geographical boundaries. In terms of types of economic activity, these include fishing and fish processing, aquaculture, coastal and marine tourism, and maritime transportation. The subject of the study is the theoretical and applied aspects of determining trends in the development of key types of economic activity in the maritime complex. Methodology. The authors used the methods of analysis, synthesis, systematization and generalization to solve the problems that appeared. According to the results of the conducted research, it was found out that governments, research community, academia, business investors are paying more and more attention to the blue economy. The main reason is that the resources humanity has had on land are running out. And there are no other resources on the planet. In addition, there are the economic growth prospects associated with the maritime industry. These are new jobs, the contribution of blue economy enterprises to the improvement of macroeconomic indicators, social stabilization in the coastal regions of coastal states. In this context, it is important to unite the efforts of the coastal states around the urgent problems of developing the resources of the World Ocean. The Black Sea and the countries bordering it are no exception. Each of them is trying to understand what its potential is, what needs to be done to mobilize it, what can be offered to partners for the development and implementation of joint projects. Ukraine has always positioned itself as a maritime power. There are good reasons for this. It has a long coastline, large areas of internal waters, territorial sea and exclusive economic zone. Conclusion. The wealth of new data presented in this article provides valuable insights into important aspects of business activity in key sectors of the Ukrainian blue economy. Now it is possible to better understand its needs and contribution to the development of all stakeholders. The presented generalizations are important for practitioners, especially for owners and management of enterprises.

Republic of Indonesia Sovereign Right in North Natuna Sea according to United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982

ABSTRACT A unilateral claim from China is in the form of dots or 9 dotted ‘Nine-dash line' which forms the letter ‘U' intersects with Indonesia Exclusive Economic Zone. Coordinating Ministry for Maritime Affairs of Indonesia, has issued the latest 2017 Map of the Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia. The 2017 NKRI Map is the proposed naming of the sea space, which was previously known as part of the South China Sea (SCS), to the North Natuna Sea. Therefore, this study aims to: (1) analyse how the legality of the sovereign rights of the Republic of Indonesia in the North Natuna Sea-based United Nations Convention on the law the Sea 1982; and (2) analyse how the Indonesian government responds in the North Natuna Sea. This research uses normative research methods. The results show that based on UNCLOS 1982, Indonesia has the legality to exercise sovereign rights in the North Natuna Sea. The Republic of Indonesia confirms that there is no dispute with China in the North Natuna Sea because China’s claims are not legal or not based on United Nations Convention on the law the Sea 1982.

Between the “Standard Methodology” in Delimitation Dispute Settlement and the UNCLOS: Some 40th Anniversary Reflections

1. By any standard, the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea has been an extraordinary instrument on ocean governance. The celebration in 2022 of the 40th anniversary of the adoption of the UNCLOS presented me the occasion to reflect on the settlement of maritime delimitation disputes and to review the relationship between settlement of such disputes and the UNCLOS. 2. Before the adoption of the UNCLOS, there had been some State practice on the settlement of disputes over the delimitation of the territorial sea as well as the continental shelf on the basis of the equidistance principle, as reflected in some cases as well as the Geneva Convention on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone and the Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf. On the other hand, delimitation on the basis of equitable principles, as reflected in the North Sea Continental Shelf cases in the International Court of Justice (ICJ or the Court), also had a following. Of course, there was no delimitation of the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) yet, as the EEZ was yet to debut in maritime space, until the idea was proposed and discussed in the context of consultations at the Asian-African Legal Consultative Committee,1 and then in the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (Diplomatic Conference).

An approach to assess offshore wind power potential using bathymetry and near-hub-height reanalysis data

Offshore wind power is emerging option in wind industry due to relatively consistent wind behavior over ocean. This study aims to access offshore wind resource employing a novel approach using bathymetry data, in-situ measured and 5th generation European Reanalysis (ERA-5) wind data. The measured wind data for four near-coast locations was used in Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of Pakistan. The percentage bias for wind speed and wind direction of ERA-5 data compared to measured data for coastline location is −0.2% and −0.9% respectively, which shows suitability of ERA-5 data for offshore resource assessment with acceptable accuracy. Annual mean wind speed and wind power density of the EEZ is 6.1 m/s and 263 W/m2 respectively. The northeastern part of the EEZ near coastline of Sindh province is most suitable for offshore wind farms. An offshore wind farm site suitable for monopile foundation having wind power class as Fair was selected. The performance of more than 400 commercial wind turbines was evaluated and a 4.5 MW turbine having highest net capacity factor (NCF) was selected. The capacity factor of suggested wind farm having installed capacity of 540 MW is computed as 55% which can avoid 1.45 million tons in CO2eq emissions annually.

Philosophical Basis of the Authority of Coastal States to Manage Natural Resources in Their Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)

Coastal states have the authority to manage and utilize natural resources in their Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). Both international law and national laws of coastal states include numerous regulations governing the authority of coastal states in the EEZ. These laws are key to the efficient and sustainable use of natural resources in the EEZ. This paper will examine the philosophical basis of the authority of coastal states to manage natural resources in the EEZ. The research method used is a normative research method. This research aims to identify and analyze the limits of authority and the purpose of the authority granted by international law. Coastal states can manage natural resources based on the rule of law, and thus realize the purpose for which they were granted such authority. The results of this study suggest that the philosophical basis for the authority of coastal states to manage natural resources in the EEZ is based on sovereign rights. The sovereign right to manage natural resources in the EEZ is exercised for peaceful purposes; the states are required to protect the environment and ensure the sustainability of fishery resources, not violate the rights of developing countries, whether coastal, landlocked or geographically disadvantaged.

Nigeria-Sao Tome and Principe Joint Development of Petroleum and Other Resources

1. Nigeria and Sao Tome and Principe are located in the Gulf of Guinea which is one of the most prolific oil and gas areas in the world. The two States have overlapping maritime boundary claims. Sao Tome and Principe has formally claimed archipelagic State status, and it, therefore, has drawn archipelagic baselines in accordance with Article 47 of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (hereinafter “UNCLOS”) and declared its Exclusive Economic Zone (hereinafter “EEZ”) of 200 nautical miles, but the northwestern part of this overlapped considerably with Nigeria’s claimed EEZ. After maritime boundary negotiations failed in 1998,1 the two States signed the joint development agreement. 2. The Treaty between the Federal Republic of Nigeria and the Democratic Republic of Sao Tome and Principe on the Joint Development of Petroleum and Other Resources, in respect of Areas of the Exclusive Economic Zone of the two States (hereinafter “Treaty”) was concluded on 21 February 2001 and entered into force on 16 January 2003. The Treaty establishes the joint development regime between the two States, which is composed of three parts: the Treaty itself, an Appendix entitled Special Regime Area (hereinafter “SRA”), and a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU).

New species of Abyssocladia and two new cladorhizid genera (Porifera, Cladorhizidae) from New Zealand and Australia.

Seamounts on subantarctic New Zealand's Macquarie Ridge, including parts of Australia's Exclusive Economic Zone surrounding Macquarie Island, have been demonstrated to be a rich source of new species of carnivorous sponges (Demospongiae Sollas, Poecilosclerida Topsent, Cladorhizidae Dendy). Four new species of Abyssocladia Lévi, 1964, are described from Macquarie Ridge seamounts and at other disparate locations: Abyssocladia lanceola sp. nov. from Seamounts 7, 8, and 9 (Australia EEZ), Seamount 10 (International Waters), and the South Tasman Rise; Abyssocladia rowdeni sp. nov., first collected from diffuse hydrothermal vent sites at Brothers Seamount on the Southern Kermadec Ridge and recorded here from the non-venting seamounts on Chatham Rise to the east of the South Island of New Zealand; Abyssocladia tumulorum sp. nov., found exclusively on the Chatham Rise; and Abyssocladia sonnae sp. nov. from Monowai Seamount on the Tonga-Kermadec Ridge in International Waters, also found, surprisingly, on Macquarie Ridge's Seamount 8 (Australia EEZ). Patriciacladia gen. nov. has been established for a new species of Cladorhizidae discovered on Macquarie Ridge and Chatham Rise. Patriciacladia enigmatica gen. et sp. nov. is highly unusual in that it possesses palmate isochelae not typically found in Cladorhizidae and has a long branch in phylogenetic analysis of the family, supporting the establishment of a new genus and species for Abyssocladia n. sp. B (QM G339872, was NIWA 41033): 28S rDNA: LN870583, COI: LN870445, Macquarie Ridge) in Hestetun et al. (2016a: table 1; 2017: fig. 15). The discovery of two new species, again from the Macquarie Ridge and other New Zealand locations, expands support for the establishment of a new genus, Australocladia gen. nov., which contains several additional species nested as a monophyletic clade within the large, heterogenous, and paraphyletic Abyssocladia clade in molecular phylogenetic analyses. Australocladia sphaerichela gen. et sp. nov. and Au. alopecura gen. et sp. nov. both possess spherical abyssochelae, funnel-shaped expansions which may contain spermatophores on the body, substrongyles in the attachment base, and a generally southern hemisphere distribution.

Evaluating dried salted cod amino acid signature for nutritional quality assessment and discriminant analysis.

Thus, the aim of this study was to answer three scientific questions: (1) Are the protein content and amino acid profile of dried salted cod influenced by species (Gadus morhua and Gadus macrocephalus)? (2) Are the protein content and amino acid profile of dried salted cod influenced by the geographical area of capture (Iceland and Norway)? and (3) Does the amino acid profile have the potential to be used as a discriminator of species and geographical areas of capture? A total of 45 dried salted cods (2-3 kg of dry weight; n = 15 samples/origin) were used in this study. The Atlantic cod was fished in the Atlantic northeast (FAO 27 area) within the Exclusive Economic zones (EEZ) of Norway (n = 15) and Iceland (n = 15), while the Pacific cod was caught in the Pacific northeast (FAO 67 area) within the Alaska EEZ (n = 15). Total protein content was determined by the Kjeldahl method, in accordance with the AOAC procedures. The amino acid profile was analyzed by HPLC with fluorescence detection (at excitation and emission wavelengths of 338 and 425 nm, respectively). The Atlantic cod presented higher contents of total protein (33.90 versus 33.10 g/100 g of cod edible portion; p = 0.017) and total amino acid contents (32.52 versus 32.04 g/100 g of cod edible portion; p = 0.015) but displayed lower percentage of indispensable amino acids (32.16 versus 32.83 g/100 g of protein; p < 0.001) than Pacific cod. Among the Atlantic cod harvesting locations, the Norwegian cod displayed higher total amino acid contents (96.91 versus 96.81 g/100 g of protein; p = 0.012) and higher percentage of indispensable amino acids (35.38 versus 28.94 g/100 g of protein; p = 0.042) than the Icelandic counterpart. A correct classification of 100% was obtained for the Pacific and Icelandic cod varieties, but the classification accuracy in the Norwegian cod was of just 86.67%, since 2 samples out of 15 were incorrectly classified as Icelandic. The comparison of cod species showed that the Atlantic cod had a significantly lower EAAI than the Pacific cod (p < 0.001; 88.23 versus 88.61). On the other hand, the comparison of the two origins in the Atlantic cod, showed that Norwegian cod displayed a significantly higher EAAI than the Icelandic cod (99.15 versus 77.32). The assessment of the EAAI allows the classification of the protein's nutritional quality, allowing us to classify both cod species as a good protein source to human diet. However, within the Atlantic cod, the Norwegian cod's protein is classified as high quality, while the Icelandic cod attain the classification of useful quality. Regarding the amino acid profile discriminatory potential to classify cod samples. The results show that the AA profile has 100% accuracy in the separation of cod species, but was not globally efficient in the differentiation of the Norwegian from the Icelandic cod.

International legal support of fishing in the conditions of the exclusive economic maritime zone

The use of the oceans requires the study of its various zones, in particular, economic (fishing) zones, which will allow to increase the level of Ukraine's economy and strengthen environmental protection.&#x0D; Ecology in the general sense is the science of the interrelationships of flora and fauna with each other and the environment, the general laws and relationships between nature and society. In this sense, environmental law and order is the relationship established by regulations that allows for the preservation of a favorable environment for humans and other living beings and the safety of life. Environmental safety is the conditions that ensure a favorable life, preservation and development of nature and society in their interconnection with the Ukrainian economy, as well as improvement of environmental protection.&#x0D; Ukrainian legislation is actualizing the problem of environmental protection, creating conditions for the inviolability of law enforcement, and a set of rules from various branches of law.&#x0D; Maritime economic zones, including fishing zones, have a special purpose.&#x0D; Thus, laws have been adopted in Ukraine: On the Exclusive Economic Maritime Zone of Ukraine, the Regulation on the Protection of Ukraine's Sovereign Rights in its Exclusive Economic Maritime Zone. [1] These regulatory acts contain the defining rules for ensuring the safety of navigation in the exclusive economic maritime zone of Ukraine. In the field of combating economic offenses, domestic legislation should be based on the experience of other states when concluding agreements to prevent offenses. Achieving this goal requires a regulatory definition of the object and subject of such legal relations. The reference of the law of Ukraine to the classification of illegal fishing, hunting and other aquatic extraction as an offense does not indicate the definition of these concepts. It may be provided in a Note to the relevant article, thus having the character of an authentic interpretation of the law, as well as through judicial interpretation in the resolutions of the Plenum of the Supreme Court of Ukraine.&#x0D; The analysis of the scientific study of the problem shows that it is imperfect and requires further development. In the blanket disposition of Articles 249 and 250 of the Criminal Code, the Ukrainian legislator defines liability for illegal fishing, hunting or other aquatic extraction and blasting in violation of the rules for the protection of fish stocks. [2] Such a general reference to specific offenses does not contribute to a clear application of these articles. This is especially true of the wording regarding the definition of animal and other aquatic fishing.&#x0D; It is the indication in the Code that criminal law has as its task the legal support of environmental protection (Article 1 of the Criminal Code of Ukraine) [2] that emphasizes its environmentalization and active preventive nature. This also corresponds to the current significance of the problems of environmental protection efficiency and contributes to ensuring unity in approaches to the criminalization of offenses in the sphere of animal and other aquatic fishing.&#x0D; It is the indication in the Code that criminal law has as its task the legal support of environmental protection (Article 1 of the Criminal Code of Ukraine) [2] that emphasizes its environmentalization and active preventive nature. This also corresponds to the current significance of the problems of environmental protection efficiency and contributes to ensuring unity in approaches to the criminalization of environmental offenses.

PROTECTING THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT WITHIN THE EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC ZONE (EEZ) FROM HUMAN ACTIVITIES

Protecting the states' interests, achieving the balance between exploring and exploiting the resources of the International Seabed Area (the Area) from one side, and protection of environment and human life from the other side are the most important goals which should be the consideration particularly when it comes to usage of the “International Seabed Area”. The Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) may soon face many enormous environmental challenges related to the Area's activities, especially in front of the modern technological development and increasing state interest in the Area's resources. In the current situation, the EEZ environment needs more protection. It establishes a new protection system that can be acceptable by all the States and provide natural protection to the EEZ from the activities carried out in the designated Area. The Area Mining system shows that the resources need more protection by decreasing the activities and controlling some kinds of the activities, for example the activities related to the exploitation of oil and gas, and making these last kinds of activities far from the EEZ. Establishing the Protection Area as a buffer zone between the EEZ and the Area will provide two kinds of protection to the EZZ environment and reduce the boundaries disputes amongst the continental shelf and the Area. This Area should be subject to the new system and different rules. Consequently, it is thought that one of the main issues confronting the states is the formation of this new territory.

Ocean predators: Squids, Chinese fleets and the geopolitics of high seas fishing

Distant Water Fishing is a major concern for ocean sustainability and maritime geopolitics, especially for countries fearing incursions into their Exclusive Economic Zone. Whereas some high seas fisheries are overseen by Regional Fisheries Management Organizations, others lack even the most basic regulations. Here, we examine the case of under-regulated squid fishing in the high seas by Chinese Distant Water Fishing vessels operating in close proximity to the Exclusive Economic Zones of Argentina, Chile, Ecuador, and Peru. The rapid growth of Chinese squid fishing fleets and their controversial practices have led to tensions over stock management, as well as costly and geopolitically sensitive naval operations, not only by countries seeking to protect their EEZ, but also by a U.S. government placing Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated fishing within its national security agenda, with Chinese DWF a clear target. This paper examines how China has attempted to resolve these tensions while resisting stricter fisheries regulations, with so far limited results in terms of addressing sustainability and geopolitical concerns. Improving fisheries regulations on the high seas and implementing new WTO rules on fisheries subsidies could help alleviate some of these concerns, while a ban on fishing in the high seas would improve ocean sustainability and reduce maritime tensions over the long term.

Yasunaga et al. (2022) meets the ethics code of Marine Mammal Science, and the journal's decision to publish the paper is correct

Yasunaga et al. (2022) meets the ethics code of <i>Marine Mammal Science</i>, and the journal's decision to publish the paper is correct

LAW ENFORCEMENT OF ILLEGAL FISHING IN THE IMMIGRATION PERSPECTIVE IN THE WORKING AREA OF BELAWAN IMMIGRATION OFFICE

The abundance of natural resources and the vast area of ​​the ocean in Indonesia are an attraction for the surrounding countries. This makes the case of Illegal fishing a case that is often found in Indonesian seas. One of the affected areas is Belawan seas. Based on the supervision carried out by the Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries (KKP), it is stated that illegal fishing violations often occur in EEZ (Exclusive Economic Zone) seas. One of the institutions authorized to enforce the law on illegal fishing is immigration. This study aims to see the implementation of law enforcement and immigration law strategies against foreigners who commit illegal fishing crimes in the work area of ​​the Belawan Immigration Office. This research is structured using a combination of normative and empirical research with qualitative methods using the basic theory of State Sovereignty and Effectiveness (Enforcement) of Law. The results of the study found that the Belawan Immigration Office carried out law enforcement in the form of Immigration Administration Actions namely deportation, some of the obstacles encountered in law enforcement were the lack of infrastructure in the form of ships and the limited detention room at the Medan Immigration Detention Center. The researchers also found that the legal strategy efforts carried out by the Belawan Immigration Office were preventive and repressive strategies. With Preventive Strategies in the form of coordination with Foreign Surveillance Team and Foreign Embassies, Repressive Strategies in the form of strengthening the intensity of Immigration Administrasion Action and Investigations.