Excellent Spectroscopic Performance Research Articles

Characterization of long-term stability of thallium bromide detectors

Abstract Thallium bromide (TlBr) gamma ray detectors exhibit excellent spectroscopic performance at room temperature. Long-term stability is an essential property for the practical application of detectors. In this study, the long-term stability of the spectroscopic performance of the TlBr detectors was characterized by acquiring 137Cs gamma-ray spectra at room temperature. TlBr detectors were fabricated from zone-purified TlBr crystals by constructing Tl electrodes. The TlBr detectors demonstrated stable spectroscopic performances for 1000 h operations at room temperature without bias polarity switching. The peak positions for the 662 keV gamma rays remained within ±1% of the average values for the 1000 h measurements. The detectors exhibited energy resolutions of ≤4.0% full width at half maximum for 662 keV gamma rays for 1000 h acquisitions without pulse height corrections. These results suggest that TlBr detectors with Tl electrodes are potential gamma-ray detectors for practical applications.

Design and development of the DE-SPECT system: a clinical SPECT system for broadband multi-isotope imaging of peripheral vascular disease

Objective. Peripheral Vascular Disease (PVD) affects more than 230 million people worldwide and is one of the leading causes of disability among people over age 60. Nowadays, PVD remains largely underdiagnosed and undertreated, and requires the development of tailored diagnostic approaches. We present the full design of the Dynamic Extremity SPECT (DE-SPECT) system, the first organ-dedicated SPECT system for lower extremity imaging, based on 1 cm thick Cadmium Zinc Telluride (CZT) spectrometers and a dynamic dual field-of-view (FOV) synthetic compound-eye (SCE) collimator. Approach. The proposed DE-SPECT detection system consists of 48 1 cm thick 3D-position-sensitive CZT spectrometers arranged in a partial ring of 59 cm in diameter in a checkerboard pattern. The detection system is coupled with a compact dynamic SCE collimator that allows the user to select between two different FOVs at any time during an imaging study: a wide-FOV (28 cm diameter) configuration for dual-leg or scout imaging or a high-resolution and high-sensitivity (HR-HS) FOV (16 cm diameter) for single-leg or focused imaging. Main results. The preliminary experimental data show that the CZT spectrometer achieves a 3D intrinsic spatial resolution of <0.75 mm FWHM and an excellent energy resolution over a broad energy range (2.6 keV FWHM at 218, 3.3 keV at 440 keV). From simulations, the wide-FOV configuration offers a 0.034% averaged sensitivity at 140 keV and <8 mm spatial resolution, whereas the HR-HS configuration presents a peak central sensitivity of 0.07% at 140 keV and a ∼5 mm spatial resolution. The dynamic SCE collimator enables the capability to perform joint reconstructions that would ensure an overall improvement in imaging performance. Significance. The DE-SPECT system is a stationary and high-performance SPECT system that offers an excellent spectroscopic performance with a unique computer-controlled dual-FOV imaging capability, and a relatively high sensitivity for multi-tracer and multi-functional SPECT imaging of the extremities.

HEXITEC 2 × 2 tiled hard X-ray spectroscopic imaging detector system

HEXITEC is a spectroscopic imaging X-ray detector technology developed at the STFC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory for X-ray and γ-ray spectroscopic imaging applications. Each module has 80 × 80 pixels on a 250 μm pixel pitch, and has been implemented successfully in a number of applications. This paper presents the HEXITEC 2 × 2 detector system, a tiled array of 4 HEXITEC modules read out simultaneously, which provides an active area of 16 cm2. Systems have been produced using 1 mm thick Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) and 2 mm thick Cadmium Zinc Telluride (CdZnTe) sensor material. In this paper the system and data processing methods are presented, and the performance of the systems are evaluated. The detectors were energy calibrated using an 241Am sealed source. Three types of charge sharing correction were applied to the data-charge sharing addition (CSA), charge sharing discrimination (CSD), and energy curve correction (ECC) which compensates for energy lost in the inter-pixel region. ECC recovers an additional 34 % of counts in the 59.5 keV peak in CdTe compared to the use of CSD; an important improvement for photon-starved applications. Due to the high frame rate of the camera system (6.3 kHz) an additional End of Frame (EOF) correction was also applied to 6.0 % of events to correct for signals that were readout whilst the signal was still forming. After correction, both detector materials were found to have excellent spectroscopic performance with a mean energy resolution (FWHM) of 1.17 keV and 1.16 keV for CdZnTe and CdTe respectively. These results successfully demonstrate the ability to construct tiled arrays of HEXITEC modules to provide larger imaging areas.

Characterization of the Uniformity of High-Flux CdZnTe Material.

Since the late 2000s, the availability of high-quality cadmium zinc telluride (CdZnTe) has greatly increased. The excellent spectroscopic performance of this material has enabled the development of detectors with volumes exceeding 1 cm3 for use in the detection of nuclear materials. CdZnTe is also of great interest to the photon science community for applications in X-ray imaging cameras at synchrotron light sources and free electron lasers. Historically, spatial variations in the crystal properties and temporal instabilities under high-intensity irradiation has limited the use of CdZnTe detectors in these applications. Recently, Redlen Technologies have developed high-flux-capable CdZnTe material (HF-CdZnTe), which promises improved spatial and temporal stability. In this paper, the results of the characterization of 10 HF-CdZnTe detectors with dimensions of 20.35 mm × 20.45 mm × 2.00 mm are presented. Each sensor has 80 × 80 pixels on a 250-μm pitch and were flip-chip-bonded to the STFC HEXITEC ASIC. These devices show excellent spectroscopic performance at room temperature, with an average Full Width at Half Maximum (FWHM) of 0.83 keV measured at 59.54 keV. The effect of tellurium inclusions in these devices was found to be negligible; however, some detectors did show significant concentrations of scratches and dislocation walls. An investigation of the detector stability over 12 h of continuous operation showed negligible changes in performance.

Post-upgrade performance of GERDA Phase II

Excellent spectroscopic performance, event topology information and outstanding radiopurity are unique properties of HPGe detectors that facilitate the search for 0vββ decay of 76Ge. A detection of this process would shed light onto physics beyond the standard model, as it would uncover the Majorana nature of neutrinos. The GERDA experiment employs an array of HPGe detectors, made from isotopically modified material, in an active liquid argon shield at the LNGS underground laboratory. The combination of an ultra-low background environment with active background rejection techniques allows the exploration of 0vββ decay half-lives beyond 1026 yr. No signal has been found in the first 58.9 kg⋅yr of Phase II data, from which the most stringent limit on 0vββ decay of 76Ge has been derived. In the course of an upgrade new HPGe detectors of novel type have been added to the array, increasing the total mass of enriched germanium to 44.2 kg. More than one year of data has been collected in this configuration. The first 24.9 kg⋅yr reveal encouraging performance for the ongoing 0vββ decay search.

Calibration measurements on the DEPFET Detectors for the MIXS instrument on BepiColombo

The Mercury Imaging X-ray Spectrometer (MIXS) will be launched on board of the 5th ESA cornerstone mission BepiColombo. The two channel instrument MIXS is dedicated to the exploration of the elemental composition of the mercurian surface by imaging x-ray spectroscopy of the elemental fluorescence lines. One of the main scientific goals of MIXS is to provide spatially resolved elemental abundance maps of key rock-forming elements. MIXS will be the successor of the XRS instrument, which is currently orbiting Mercury on board of NASAs satellite MESSENGER. MIXS will provide unprecedented spectral and spatial resolution due to its innovative detector and optics concepts. The MIXS target energy band ranges from 0.5 to 7 keV and allows to directly access the Fe-L line at 0.7 keV, which was not accessible to previous missions. In addition, the high spectroscopic resolution of FWHM ≤ 200 eV at the reference energy of 1 keV after one year in Mercury orbit, allows to separate the x-ray fluorescence emission lines of important elements like Mg (1.25 keV) and Al (1.49 keV) without the need for any filter. The detectors for the energy and spatially resolved detection of x-rays for both channels are identical DEPFET (DEpleted P-channel FET) active pixel detectors. We report on the calibration of the MIXS flight and flight spare detector modules at the PTB (Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt) beamlines at the BESSY II synchrotron radiation facility. Each detector was calibrated at least at 10 discrete energies in the energy range from 0.5 to 10 keV. The excellent spectroscopic performance of all three detector modules was verified.

Spectral performance of DEPFET and gateable DEPFET macropixel devices

Future x-ray observatories, such as the proposed ATHENA+ mission, will investigate bright and rapidly evolving radiation sources. To reach the scientific goals, high speed, spatial resolving sensors with excellent spectroscopic performance are mandatory. Well suited for this task are matrices of Depleted P-channel Field Effect Transistors (DEPFETs). DEPFETs provide intrinsic signal amplification, 100 percent fill factor, charge storage capability and a low read noise. Previous studies of DEPFET matrices of 256 × 256 pixels demonstrated an excellent energy resolution of 126 eV FWHM at 5.9 keV (compared to the theoretical Fano limit 120 eV).Usually these matrices are read out on demand, using e.g. the ASTEROID ASIC. Because the DEPFET is always sensitive, charge collected during the readout, causes so called misfits, which increase the background. For low frame rates this can be neglected. However, for fast timings, as suggested for ATHENA+, this effect reduces the spectral performance.We will present measurements on DEPFET macropixel structures, read out using a semi-Gaussian shaper, which demonstrate the excellent spectroscopic performance of these devices. Furthermore we will investigate the effect of misfits on the spectral background of DEPFET devices read out on demand. These measurements show the necessity to suppress misfits when the devices are operated for fast timing modes. As will be shown this can be done using so called gateable DEPFETs. The general advantage of gateable DEPFETs at fast timings, in terms of peak-to-background ratio will be demonstrated.

Electric Field and Current Transport Mechanisms in Schottky CdTe X-ray Detectors under Perturbing Optical Radiation

Schottky CdTe X-ray detectors exhibit excellent spectroscopic performance but suffer from instabilities. Hence it is of extreme relevance to investigate their electrical properties. A systematic study of the electric field distribution and the current flowing in such detectors under optical perturbations is presented here. The detector response is explored by varying experimental parameters, such as voltage, temperature, and radiation wavelength. The strongest perturbation is observed under 850 nm irradiation, bulk carrier recombination becoming effective there. Cathode and anode irradiations evidence the crucial role of the contacts, the cathode being Ohmic and the anode blocking. In particular, under irradiation of the cathode, charge injection occurs and peculiar kinks, typical of trap filling, are observed both in the current-voltage characteristic and during transients. The simultaneous access to the electric field and the current highlights the correlation between free and fixed charges, and unveils carrier transport/collection mechanisms otherwise hidden.

Electric fields and dominant carrier transport mechanisms in CdTe Schottky detectors

CdTe Schottky diodes for X- and γ-ray detection exhibit excellent spectroscopic performance, even though these are not stable under operative voltages. Improvements require the comprehension of the main carrier transport mechanisms, presently unclear. We address this issue by correlating the internal electric field and the flowing current. Depending on the temperature and applied voltage, different mechanisms become dominant where the deep levels always play a central role. Indeed, the partial ionization of deep levels directly controls the electric field distribution. Transient measurements show how, under high voltages, the field at the contacts controls the current flowing through the detector.

Advances in TlBr detector development

Thallium bromide (TlBr) is a promising compound semiconductor for fabrication of gamma-ray detectors. The attractive physical properties of TlBr lie in its high photon stopping power, high resistivity and good charge transport properties. Gamma-ray detectors fabricated from TlBr crystals have exhibited excellent spectroscopic performance. In this paper, advances in TlBr radiation detector development are reviewed with emphasis on crystal growth, detector fabrication, physical properties and detector performance.

DEPFET Macropixel Detectors for MIXS: Integration and Qualification of the Flight Detectors

The Mercury imaging X-ray spectrometer (MIXS) on board of ESA's fifth cornerstone mission BepiColombo will be the first space instrument using DEpleted P-channel FET (DEPFET) based detectors. The MIXS spectrometer comprises two channels with identical focal plane detectors and is dedicated to energy resolved imaging of X-ray fluorescence from the mercurial surface. We report on the characterization, integration, and spectroscopic qualification of MIXS flight detectors. Detector chips were precharacterized at die level in order to select the best dies for integration and to do homogeneity and yield studies. Then, the detector chips were integrated to MIXS Detector Plane Arrays (DPAs), a complicated process due to the sophisticated mechanical structure, which allows the thermal decoupling of the detector from its readout and control chips. After integration, spectroscopic qualification measurements were done in order to analyze the detector performance and to prove the excellent spectroscopic performance of the DEPFET Macropixel detectors over a wide temperature range. The integration and spectroscopic qualification of all flight grade modules is now successfully completed.

Recent Development of TlBr Gamma-Ray Detectors

Planar detectors, strip detectors, and double-sided strip detectors were fabricated from TlBr crystals grown by the traveling molten zone method using zone-purified material. The detector performance including the leakage current, energy resolutions, and timing performance were evaluated in order to assess the capability of the detectors for PET and SPECT applications. The TlBr detectors exhibited excellent spectroscopic performance at room temperature. An energy resolution of 3.4% FWHM at 511 keV was obtained from a TlBr planar detector 1 mm thick. A TlBr strip detector 1 mm thick with four anode strip electrodes exhibited almost uniform detector performance over the strips with the average energy resolution of 4.4% FWHM at 511 keV. A TlBr double-sided strip detector exhibited an energy resolution of 6.3% FWHM for 122 keV gamma-rays. Coincidence timing spectra between a TlBr planar detector and a BaF2 scintillation detector were recorded at room temperature. Timing resolutions of 14 ns and 24 ns were obtained from TlBr detectors 0.5 mm and 1 mm thick, respectively. By cooling the detector to 0° C, an improved timing resolution of 12 ns was obtained from a TlBr detector 1 mm thick.

Determining the Absolute Abundances of Natural Radioactive Elements on the Lunar Surface by the Kaguya Gamma-ray Spectrometer

The Kaguya gamma-ray spectrometer (KGRS) has great potential to precisely determine the absolute abundances of natural radioactive elements K, Th and U on the lunar surface because of its excellent spectroscopic performance. In order to achieve the best performance of the KGRS, it is important to know the spatial response function (SRF) that describes the directional sensitivity of the KGRS. The SRF is derived by a series of Monte Carlo simulations of gamma-ray transport in the sensor of the KGRS using the full-fledged simulation model of the KGRS, and is studied in detail. In this paper, the method for deriving absolute abundance of natural radioactive elements based on the SRF is described for the analysis of KGRS data, which is also applicable to any gamma-ray remote sensings. In the preliminary analysis of KGRS data, we determined the absolute abundances of K and Th on the lunar surface without using any previous knowledge of chemical information gained from Apollo samples, lunar meteorites and/or previous lunar remote sensings. The results are compared with the previous measurements and the difference and the correspondence are discussed. Future detailed analysis of KGRS data will provide new and more precise maps of K, Th and U on the lunar surface.

Study on Instability Phenomena in CdTe Diode-Like Detectors

<para xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> Diode-like In/CdTe/Pt detectors are widely used thanks to their excellent spectroscopic performance. However, when operated at room temperature they are not stable, and their performance degrades with time. The aim of this paper is to investigate in detail the physical mechanisms underlying this effect, by studying the evolution of the space charge inside the detector. Our approach makes use of the Pockels effect, by looking at the evolution of the electric field distribution inside the detector at different temperatures. The results show that a negative space charge accumulation occurs at the anode and that the process is thermally activated. The effect is attributed to a midgap acceptor which, under reverse bias, increases its ionization because of hole detrapping. Moreover, we compare the results with those obtained on stable detectors realized from nominally same crystals but having “standard,” i.e., not rectifying contacts. Consistently with the detection performance stability of this kind of detectors, the electric field is relatively stable. Furthermore, it decreases from cathode and it shows peculiar features which will be discussed in conjunction with charge transport properties. </para>

Caliste 64, an Innovative CdTe Hard X-Ray Micro-Camera

<para xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> A prototype 64 pixel miniature camera has been designed and tested for the Simbol-X hard X-ray observatory to be flown on the joint CNES-ASI space mission in 2014. This device is called Caliste 64. It is a high performance spectro-imager with event time-tagging capability, able to detect photons between 2 keV and 250 keV. Caliste 64 is the assembly of a 1 or 2 mm thick CdTe detector mounted on top of a readout module. CdTe detectors equipped with Aluminum Schottky barrier contacts are used because of their very low dark current and excellent spectroscopic performance. Front-end electronics is a stack of four IDeF-X V1.1 ASICs, arranged perpendicular to the detection plane, to read out each pixel independently. The whole camera fits in a 10<formula formulatype="inline"><tex>$\,\times\,$</tex></formula>10<formula formulatype="inline"> <tex>$\,\times\,$</tex></formula>20 <formula formulatype="inline"><tex>${\rm mm}^{3}$</tex></formula> volume and is juxtaposable on its four sides. This allows the device to be used as an elementary unit in a larger array of Caliste 64 cameras. Noise performance resulted in an ENC better than 60 electrons rms in average. The first prototype camera is tested at <formula formulatype="inline"> <tex>$-10^{\circ}{\rm C}$</tex></formula> with a bias of <formula formulatype="inline"> <tex>$-400~{\rm V}$</tex></formula>. The spectrum summed across the 64 pixels results in a resolution of 697 eV FWHM at 13.9 keV and 808 eV FWHM at 59.54 keV. </para>

PnCCD for photon detection from near-infrared to X-rays

A pnCCD is a special type of charge-coupled device developed for spectroscopy and imaging of X-rays with high time resolution and quantum efficiency. Its most famous application is the operation on the XMM-Newton satellite, an X-ray astronomy mission that was launched by the European space agency in 1999. The excellent performance of the focal plane camera has been maintained for more than 6 years in orbit. The energy resolution in particular has shown hardly any degradation since launch. In order to satisfy the requirements of future X-ray astronomy missions as well as those of ground-based experiments, a new type of pnCCD has been developed. This ‘frame-store pnCCD’ shows an enhanced performance compared to the XMM-Newton type of pnCCD. Now, more options in device design and operation are available to tailor the detector to its respective application. Part of this concept is a programmable analog signal processor, which has been developed for the readout of the CCD signals. The electronic noise of the new detector has a value of only 2 electrons equivalent noise charge (ENC), which is less than half of the figure achieved for the XMM-Newton-type pnCCD. The energy resolution for the Mn-K α line at 5.9 keV is approximately 130 eV FWHM. We have close to 100% quantum efficiency for both low- and high-energy photon detection (e.g. the C-K line at 277 eV, and the Ge-K α line at 10 keV, respectively). Very high frame rates of 1000 images/s have been achieved due to the ultra-fast readout accomplished by the parallel architecture of the pnCCD and the analog signal processor. Excellent spectroscopic performance is shown even at the relatively high operating temperature of −25 °C that can be achieved by a Peltier cooler. The applications of the low-noise and fast pnCCD detector are not limited to the detection of X-rays. With an anti-reflective coating deposited on the photon entrance window, we achieve high quantum efficiency also for near-infrared and optical photons. A novel type of pnCCD is in preparation, which allows single optical photon counting. This feature is accomplished by implementation of an avalanche-type amplifier in the pnCCD concept.

高分解能プラズマ X 線計測の最前線 6.高分解能分光&amp;bull;画像計測用 X 線光学素子の最前線 6.1 軟 X 線ラミナー型不等間隔溝ホログラフィック回折格子

Laminar-type varied-line-spacing gratings have been widely used for soft x-ray monochromator recently because of the features of low stray lights and higher order lights. We have developed an advanced holographic recording and an ion-beam etching methods for the laminar type varied-line spacing gratings. This report describes a short review of the soft x-ray spectrometers using varied-line-spacing gratings, the fabrication process of the laminar-type holographic gratings, and the performance of the flat field spectrographs equipped with the laminar type varied-line spacing gratings comparing with the mechanically ruled replica gratings. It is concluded that, for the sake of the advanced design and fabrication processes and excellent spectroscopic performance, laminar-type holographic gratings will be widely used for soft x-ray spectrometers for various purposes in the near future.

Optimization criteria for coplanar-grid detectors

The coplanar-grid charge-sensing technique is a powerful method to achieve excellent spectroscopic performance with large-volume, CdZnTe-based, gamma-ray detectors despite the poor charge transport characteristics of the CdZnTe material. Critical to the success of the technique are the charge induction characteristics of the sensing-grid electrodes as governed by the detector geometry and the grid design. In this paper we demonstrate through numerical calculations of the detector response that the criteria for optimizing the grid design depend on the particular method in which the coplanar-grid technique is implemented. We present the fundamental design criteria in terms of the desired charge induction on the grid electrodes for the commonly used coplanar-grid implementations.

Spectroscopy with CdZnTe γ- and X-ray detectors by modifying the electron trapping to compensate for incomplete charge collection caused by large hole trapping

We show a method for obtaining excellent spectroscopic performance for CdZnTe γ- and X-ray detectors with segmented readout. Best spectroscopic performance is obtained by tuning the electron trapping in the detector material to obtain optimum compensation for the incomplete charge collection caused by the large amount of hole trapping. For a CdZnTe detector with pad segmentation, we obtain for 57 Co a photopeak resolution of better than 3.5% FWHM with a peak-to-valley ratio of ∼100/1.