European Union Norms Research Articles

The Fragmented Inclusion of Gender Equality in AU-EU Relations in Times of Crises

Facing internal and external crises, the European Union and the African Union have revitalized their interregional cooperation. This article theorizes interregional norm dynamics and explores how, in times of crises, gender equality norms are shaped in interregional relations between the African Union and the European Union. The question is all the more relevant because gender equality is shaped very differently in the European Union and the African Union policies. The African Union has adopted a rather holistic understanding of gender equality, while the European Union approach is constrained by a market-making logic. Also, since the 2008 economic crisis, gender equality policies within the European Union seem to stagnate while they seem to expand in the African Union. Our analysis of core texts shows that at interregional level attention to gender equality is fragmented. Even though in some respects the African Union gender equality norms are more encompassing, and gendered effects of crises in the European Union would merit renewed attention to gender equality, the European Union norms and interests dominate the agenda. Showing how power asymmetries between and disjointed logics of regional organizations impact interregional gender equality norms, the article contributes to the scarce literature on interregional norm dynamics.

Classifying the Implementation of the EU's Normative Power in its Southern Neighbourhood: The Role of Local Actors

AbstractThis article examines the role of local actors in the implementation of the European Union (EU) norms in the Arab Mediterranean countries (AMCs) after 2011. It argues that their role is determined by two parameters: their degree of involvement in policy formulation and the position of other external actors towards the EU norms. Based on this categorization, the article generates a typology of the application of the EU norms, and claims that their implementation in the AMCs takes a thin or a thick form. The findings of this typology suggest that holistic and Eurocentric narratives of the EU's normative power should be revisited. The implementation of EU norms must be contextualized and is conditional upon the differentiated role of local sectoral actors. For explaining the articulation of the EU's norms, this study considers two key sectors of the revised European Neighbourhood Policy: (1) democracy promotion and (2) sustainable development.

Menu or Mandate? EU Governance and Party Politics in Poland

This article examines how the European Union (EU) has impacted party politics in Poland. Before the 2004 accession, party politics in Poland were turbulent. In this period, the EU, as a reference point, helped to create a pro- and anti-EU party cleavage. With this impact admitted, the article turns to the post-accession party politics. Centering on the nationalist Law and Justice (Prawo i Sprawiedliwość, PiS), the article attempts to explore the EU’s impact on the PiS by studying the latter’s adaptation preferences. To do so, I employ James N. Rosenau’s political adaptation theory. Central to the article is the argument that since political parties are the protagonists in member states’ domestic politics, the EU can only affect the party politics in Poland indirectly, but not inconsequentially. Without mandate notwithstanding, the EU can create bottom-up pressures through civil society; meanwhile, since EU norms and political parties’ particular interests are not necessarily incompatible, the EU can take the initiatives to make a balance between them through policy innovations.

ДІЯЛЬНІСТЬ СТРАХОВИХ КОМПАНІЙ НА РИНКУ МЕДИЧНИХ СТРАХОВИХ ПОСЛУГ В УКРАЇНІ

The article analyzes the activities of highly rated insurance companies, which provide health insurance services in Ukraine. Time series study took place between 2014 and the first half of 2019. The quantitative dynamics of insurance companies tends to decrease. This is due to introduction of the order of the National Commission for the State Regulation of Financial Services Markets. This implies that by 2020 insurance companies must confirm their solvency by clearing out insurance portfolios of high-risk assets and forming an additional reserve of paying capacity, thus strong players remain in the market, and weak ones cease their activities.The level of competition in the market for health insurance services has been estimated using the Herfindahl-Hirschman index. The calculations were carried out on the indicators of insurance premiums and insurance payments, separately for each component of the health insurance services market, namely: permanent health insurance, medical expenses insurance, health insurance in case of illness. It is noted that the calculation of the Herfindahl-Hirschman index in the insurance market as a whole does not provide optimal information about the level of competition, because it should be calculated for each segment of the insurance market, including the market for medical insurance services. In Ukraine, it is necessary to bring domestic legislation in line with the European Union norms instead of relying on outdated norms that have been in force in the last century.The analyzed insurance companies occupy leading positions in the ranking in terms of insurance premiums, insurance payments and the level of payments. It is worth mentioning that the insurance companies «Uniqa» and «Providna» are the most financially stable in the health insurance services market. The comparative characteristic of health insurance programs offered to the population by insurance companies «Uniqa», «Providna», «ARX», «Alfa Insurance», «INGO Ukraine» is given. It is found out that programs of these insurance companies are similar in terms of fullness of services, cooperation with some medical institutions, medical laboratories and pharmacies, so each client can choose a program that he can afford.

Pharmacy Practice and Education in Estonia.

The Pharmacy Education in Europe (PHARMINE) project studied pharmacy practice and education in the European Union (EU) member states. The work was carried out using an electronic survey forwarded to selected pharmacy representatives at community and hospital pharmacies, in the pharmacy industry and at drug authorities. The surveys of the individual member states are now being published as reference documents for students and staff interested in research on pharmacy education in the EU, and in mobility. This paper presents the results of the PHARMINE project on pharmacy practice and education in Estonia. In this paper, we examine the harmonisation of practice and education in Estonia with EU norms. Community pharmacies in Estonia provide traditional and extended services, of which influenza vaccination, the evaluation of the risk of diabetes, and medication use review have been introduced recently. Pharmacists (in Estonian proviisor) study at the University of Tartu for five years and graduate with a Master of Pharmacy (MSc Pharm) degree. A pharmacist can be the owner of a pharmacy, or work as a pharmacy manager or chief pharmacist in either a community or a hospital pharmacy. Assistant pharmacists (in Estonian farmatseut) study at the Tallinn Health Care College for 3 years; after graduation, they are mainly employed in community pharmacies. The University of Tartu is the only university in Estonia providing higher education in pharmacy at university level. The pharmacy curriculum is an integrated (bachelor followed by master), pharmaceutical product-oriented study programme. It was last updated in 2019. On that occasion, several changes were made such as the introduction of competency-based modules; novel methods in education and training based on the constructive alignment and the restructuring of the six-month traineeship. Several new courses focus on the concepts of clinical pharmacy and on patient-centred communication. In the current pharmacy curriculum, there is a balance between chemical and medical subjects. The traineeship is provided for six months at a community and/or hospital pharmacy in the 5th year. Currently, the pharmacy curriculum at the University of Tartu does not offer specialization in subjects such as hospital or industrial pharmacy.

The Citizenship Policies of the Baltic States within the EU Framework on Minority Rights

The ethnic landscape in the Baltic States is dominated by one large ethnic minority: Russians. Lithuania is an exception as here the first biggest ethnic minority are Poles, followed by Russians. The Baltic States have also significant Slavic minorities, such as Belarusians and Ukrainians. There are many barriers for people from different ethnic groups to overcome because the Baltic societies are segregated according to ethnicity across a number of dimensions: language, work and geography. During the Soviet period there were separate language schools, a system that reinforced ethnic separation. Labor market was also split along ethnic lines and a large proportion of ethnic minorities lived spatially segregated from the majority group and was concentrated mostly in urban centers. The impact of communist heritage and the construction of the post-communist state order had a negative impact on the integration process of the Russian minorities in those countries. The ethnic Russians had been heavily marginalized as many of them had no citizenship at all. As a result, they had limited access to labor-market and less social protection. However, the accession of the Baltic States to the European Union (EU) has succeeded in significantly changing policies with respect for and protection of minorities in the three Baltic countries. In the last years the ethnic Russians have in fact been partially accommodated through the consistency of the citizenship laws with the European Union norms, which precisely require the protection of minorities and respect for them. The aim of the study described herein is to investigate the historic roots of ethnic segregation between the native Baltic population and the Russian minority and show how the entry of the Baltic States into the EU has facilitated the process of promoting minority rights, especially from the perspective of granting citizenship right to Russian (and Polish) ethnic persons living in those countries.

Pharmacy Practice and Education in Slovenia.

The PHARMINE (“Pharmacy Education in Europe”) project studied pharmacy practice and education in the European Union (EU) member states. The work was carried out using an electronic survey sent to chosen pharmacy representatives. The surveys of the individual member states are now being published as reference documents. This paper presents the results of the PHARMINE survey on pharmacy practice and education in Slovenia. In the light of this, we examine the harmonisation of practice and education in Slovenia with EU norms.

EU constitutional limits to the Europeanization of punishment: A case study on offenders’ rehabilitation

This article contributes to the debate on the functions and limits of cross-border punishment. It uses two existing Framework Decisions as case studies, namely on Transfer of Prisoners (2008/909) and on Transfer of Probationers (2008/947). These texts include promoting the rehabilitative function of punishment in cross-border cases among their objectives. However, they have been criticized for not being fit for their purpose and being just an instrument for ‘covert’ deportation of foreign offenders. This article argues that European Union norms on punishment should be assessed considering the broader EU constitutional law framework, which requires EU norms not to compress disproportionately national regulatory autonomy (Article 5 Treaty on European Union). Against this background, it submits that some of the criticisable features of these Framework Decisions are not a neglect of the core objective of offenders’ rehabilitation but, in fact, the result of a legitimate balance with the interest of national regulatory autonomy. In broader terms, this illustrates that the Europeanization of criminal justice can help to ensure the certainty of punishment in transnational cases. Yet, due to some institutional limits, it can also compromise the effective achievement of all its functions.

Pharmacy Practice and Education in Croatia

The PHARMINE (“Pharmacy Education in Europe”) project examined the organisation of pharmacy practice and education in the European Union (EU). An electronic survey was sent out to community, hospital, and industrial pharmacists, and university staff and students. This paper presents the results of the PHARMINE survey for Croatia. We examined to what extent harmonisation with EU norms has occurred, whether this has promoted mobility, and what impact it has had on healthcare.

Pharmacy Practice and Education in Austria.

The PHARMINE (“Pharmacy Education in Europe”) project studied pharmacy practice and education in the European Union (EU) member states. The work was carried out using an electronic survey sent to chosen pharmacy representatives. The surveys of the individual member states are now being published as reference documents for students and staff interested in research on pharmacy education in the EU and in mobility. This paper presents the results of the PHARMINE survey on pharmacy practice and education in Austria. In the light of this, we examine the harmonisation of practice and education in Austria with EU norms.

Regulatory Network Calibration in the EU-Korea Free Trade Agreement

The European Union (EU) and South Korea (Korea) created the world’s biggest free trade deal since 1994 in 2011. It was not only the biggest in terms of economic size, it was also the most ambitious one that the EU has ever negotiated. The EU-Korea free trade agreement (EU-Korea FTA) is ambitious in the sense that it tackles not only the tariff barriers but also the non-tariff ones to reach full liberalization in trade. This article aims to weigh the European normative power via this interesting trade deal, the EU-Korea FTA. It takes a normative perspective to examine the concretization of the EU normative power with measurable standards, and tries to discern the impacts of the European values and norms on Korean reforms in trade. The article will focus on the regulatory network built up by the two sides in order to enforce and monitor the provisions especially on non-tariff barriers(NTBs) issues, and it concludes with the finding that the degree of normativity that the EU norms possess in Korean market is moderate, with strong rhetorical commitment, slow formal adoption, and unremarkable behavioural compliance. Certain European values have indeed been transformed into concrete regulations in the FTA, such as IPRs regulation, sustainable development, etc. However, for the implementation of the agreement to be effective, it takes not only government’s endeavour to enforce regulatory framework, but also more communication and cooperation on the social level to create this normative legitimacy for the Korean society to take in the European norms and values. It is believed that continuous dialogues through the regulatory network on different layers of the society would still be necessary on fostering and strengthening the bilateral relationship between the EU and Korea.

Pharmacy Practice and Education in Latvia.

The PHARMINE (“Pharmacy Education in Europe”) project studied the organisation of pharmacy practice and education in the member states of the European Union (EU). The work was carried out using an electronic survey sent to chosen pharmacy representatives. The surveys of the individual member states are now being published as reference documents. This paper presents the results of the PHARMINE survey on pharmacy practice and education in Latvia. In the light of this, we examine the harmonisation of practice and education in Latvia with EU norms.

Pharmacy Practice and Education in Romania.

The PHARMINE (“Pharmacy Education in Europe”) project examined the organisation of pharmacy practice and education in the European Union (EU). An electronic survey was sent out to representatives of different sectors (community, hospital, industrial pharmacists, university staff, and students) in each individual EU member state. This paper presents the results of the PHARMINE survey on pharmacy practice and education in Romania. In the light of this data we examine to what extent harmonisation of practice and education with EU norms has occurred, whether this has promoted mobility of pharmacy professionals, academics and students, and what impact it has had on healthcare in Romania. The survey reveals the substantial changes in Romanian pharmacy practice and education since the 1989 change in government and Romania joining the EU in 2007. Romania remains, however, a poor country with expenditure on healthcare less than one-third of the EU average. This factor also impacts pharmacy practice. Although practice seems aligned with EU norms, this masks the substantial imbalance between the situation in the richer capital, Bucharest, and that of the poorer countryside. Harmonisation to EU norms in pharmacy education has not promoted student exchange and mobility but, rather, a brain drain in pharmaceutical graduates to other EU countries. Specialisation in industrial practice has been lost since 1989 with pharmacists being replaced by chemists. In hospitals the hospital pharmacist is being replaced by the clinical pharmacist.

From Evropa to Gayropa: A Critical Geopolitics of the European Union as Seen from Russia

ABSTRACTThe role of geopolitics in European Union (EU) foreign policy has been the focus of much media, political, and scholarly commentary. This literature has interrogated the topic from a number of perspectives, critically exploring, for example, the construction and embodiment of EU foreign policy, the geopolitics of regional cooperation within the EU, and the role of geopolitical imaginations in the creation of the EU. Far less literature, by contrast, has explored how the EU is viewed as a geopolitical actor by other entities. This paper begins to do this, by exploring how ideas of the EU have become an enduring geopolitical conception in post-Soviet Russia. It traces their evolution from the early 2000s, when Russia sought to emulate EU norms and values as part of a broader Westernising tendency in its foreign policy. Narratives about the EU were reworked in the context of the so-called ‘colour revolutions’ between 2003 and 2005, and have subsequently been revitalised since Vladimir Putin returned to the presidency in 2012. In these contexts, this paper critically scrutinises the evolution of the EU’s role within Russian practical geopolitical discourse and this role’s relations to other claims and visions of what it means for Russia to be a great power.

The Otherness of Turkey in European Integration

ABSTRACTThis paper discusses how Turkey’s otherness to European identity, as represented by the European Union (EU), was turned into an asset during the beginning of the AKP rule. To the extent that the AKP represented the Islamic cultural other against both the secular establishment of Turkey and the EU, its promise to fulfill the Copenhagen political criteria and adopt EU norms and standards provided a possibility of ‘a model’ for the EU. This was the promise of a self-transforming cultural other becoming a part of the EU normative order and representing this system in its region. In the period between 2002 and 2005, there was a compromise on Turkey’s projected identity between the EU and the AKP. Yet this early promise and the ensuing compromise could not be sustained and realized in the following phases of the AKP rule. First stagnation between 2005 and 2010 and then a break wasted this promising new beginning.

Free movement of people and the Brexit

This paper deals with the development of free movement of people principle during the initial phase of United Kingdom (UK) exit from European Union (EU). Utilising descriptive methods we highlighted the cornerstones of negotiations till the deal. The Conclusions adopted by the Heads of State and Government of the EU Member States on 19 February 2016 laid down a set of arrangements between the UK and the EU that try to find a solution for the questions around four problematic areas of EU integration mentioned in the 10 November 2015 letter of David Cameron, in order not to make the concerns of the UK so pronounced that it would lead to the exit of the country from the EU. The study examines the agreement’s the fourth policy area (immigration) and the British concerns attached to the social benefits and immigration aspects of the free movement of EU nationals to UK, as well as answers of EU Heads of State and Government and the declarations of the European Commission’s will. The analysis covers the abuses experienced by the UK, their legal roots and the possibilities to act against them. The contribution places great emphasis on exploring to what extent the future directions of amendments could be considered clear, how they could be transformed into EU norms, how they could affect the EU legal system and its application. We concluded that the idea of a multi-speed Europe has reached the freedom of movement of people principle. Finally, in light of the Brexit referendum, the authors also try to explore disputable scenarios of how the results could affect the UK’s relation with the EU in the near future.

How do EU norms diffuse? Rule of law promotion in EU-China cooperation on environmental governance

The rule of law (RoL), as a highly valued international principle and one of the founding principles of the European Union (EU), plays a significant role in its environmental governance. Overlapping interests between China’s search for effective solutions to environmental problems and the EU’s environmental governance experience provide a solid ground for bilateral cooperation in environmental area, and the RoL which is embodied in these bilateral programmes has also been diffused to China. Through looking at the top-down approach of capacity building in law enforcement and the bottom-up approach of the raising of public awareness of environmental rights and public participation promotion, China’s lesson-drawing and the EU’s RoL promotion in EU-China Environmental Governance Programme can be understood. Moreover, although studying the long-term effect of RoL promotion requires more empirical data, this paper does explain how EU norms diffuse in practice.

The application of “fair value” accounting standards to the income statements of companies listed in the Portuguese Stock Index-20 (PSI-20)

Purpose – “Fair value” accounting standards are not consensual. Supporters claim that they offer a methodology to find the “correct” value of accounting items, whereas critics contend that “fair value” accounting reduces the reliability of financial statements through a complex and unpractical method based on subjective information. Still, the impacts of “fair value” accounting upon taxes and public revenues are rarely discussed. Design/methodology/approach – The Portuguese case allows us to study taxation and public revenues. Through European Union norms, “fair value” standards have become mandatory after 2005 for companies listed in European stock-exchanges. Nevertheless, Portuguese corporate tax law was reformulated in 2010 to strongly restrict the use of “fair value” for taxation purposes. We study the use of “fair value” in the Income Statements of the largest companies listed in the Portuguese exchange between 2005 and 2012. Findings – If Portugal had not adopted “fair value” standards, its tax revenue would have been higher. Over all analyzed years and in almost all studied companies, average “fair value” adjustments are negative. Although a statistical association between negative adjustments and the economic cycle was found, this statistical association is not very strong. Therefore, the economic cycle cannot be used as the only explanation for the use of “fair value”. Originality/value – This paper demonstrates that discussions concerning the “fair value” accounting method must not ignore its possible impacts on government taxes and public revenue.

BUILDING MEMBER STATES: HOW THE EU PROMOTES POLITICAL CHANGE IN ITS NEW MEMBERS, ACCESSION CANDIDATES, AND EASTERN NEIGHBORS

1. IntroductionThe European Union (EU) seeks to strengthen the integration capacity of new members, current and potential candidates as well as its Eastern neighbors by helping them to make their domestic institutions and policies conform to the EU's norms and values and by building their capacity to provide collective goods and services. Modes of economic integration aim at mitigating competitive asymmetries and fostering the sustainability of EU market rules. Modes of political integration, in turn, aim to promote democratization and democratic consolidation, and to strengthen governance capacities of new and non-members.EU membership has been considered the key factor in strengthening the integration capacity of post-communist countries in the context of Eastern enlargement. Accordingly, the ineffectiveness of the European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) in bringing about the domestic change that conforms to the EU's expectations tends to be blamed on the lack of this golden carrot. Likewise, the stalling of domestic reforms in current and potential candidates (Albania, Turkey, Bosnia Herzegovina, and Macedonia) as well as the potential back-sliding of some of the new member states (Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, Latvia, cf. Borzel 2014) are explained by the carrot already being eaten up or not being juicy enough (any more). At the same time, however, we do find that Eastern Neighbourhood Countries (ENC) engage in domestic reforms the EU has been promoting, mostly at the policy level (Langbein/ Borzel 2013) but in some cases also with regard to political institutions (Borzel/van Hullen 2014b).This paper reviews the literature regarding the modes of political integration the EU has developed and applied to shape state-building, democracy and rule of law in the new member states, in the current and potential candidates of the Western Balkans, and in the ENC. The first part develops an analytical framework of modes of political integration that combines two concepts: the mechanisms the EU uses to induce political change and the actors targeted by the EU with these mechanisms in its attempt to shape their preferences and build their reform capacities. Particular attention is paid to more indirect mechanisms, such as competition and emulation, which the Europeanization literature with its focus on conditionality and assistance has overlooked so far. The second part uses this framework to make an inventory of the EU's modes of political integration systematically tracing their evolution over time. The analysis draws on a comprehensive review of the general literature complemented by the findings of four separate case studies on the EU's attempts at promoting and protecting rule of law as well as strengthening the governance capacities in past candidates and new members (Dimitrova 2015), current and potential candidates (Fagan 2015; Mufteler- Bac 2015 a), and the Eastern Partnership (EaP) countries (Borzel/Lebanidze 2015). I show that the EU's political modes of integration developed through an incremental process of learning by doing rather than through a great master plan by the EU to strengthen the integration capacities of new and non-members. These political modes initially emerged in the development cooperation of the EU with the so-called African, Caribbean, and Pacific Group of States (ACP), then travelled to the Eastern enlargement process and to the ENP and finally also spilled over into the domestic politics of the EU vis-a-vis its new member states.This might suggest that the EU has pursued a one size fits all approach. The analysis indeed reveals some interesting similarities of the modes used by the EU to promote the integration of new member states, candidates, and neighborhood countries. These similarities have been propelled by the lessons the EU has learned over time. While conditionality continues to play a prominent role, it has become more differentiated, both with regard to the rewards offered and the benchmark set to obtain them. …

Assessment of European Union Funded Projects Finalised by the Ministry of National Education based on the Opinions of Administrators and Experts

The main purpose of this study is to assess European Union Training Projects (Support to Basic Education Program (SBEP), Strengthening Vocational Education and Training Project, (SVET) Modernisation of the Vocational and Technical Education Project, (MVET)) finalised by the Ministry of National Education in terms of their purpose, process, outcomes and sustainability dimensions based on opinions of Turkish and foreign administrators as well as the managers and experts taking part in the decision-making and implementation processes. Participants of this study are Turkish and foreign administrators and educational experts who were engaged in European Union funded projects. Taking into account general qualifications of the participants of this study, the most common feature is that they are effectively involved in decision making and implementation processes of SBEP, SVET, and MVET projects. Not only were the opinions of decision takers but also of those who carried out the pilot practices at local level considered for this study. In order to ensure objectivity, opinions of all Turkish and foreign experts participated in the preparation and implementation processes of SBEP, SVET and MVET projects were received. Data of this study was collected in two ways. First of all, face to face interviews were held with several participants voluntarily agreed on giving opinions and accordingly, the data was recorded. Semi-structured interview forms were developed in order to get comments of those who accepted to give their opinions. Later, these interviews were analysed. The participants who were/could not attend interviews were asked to present their opinions in writing and semi-structured interview forms were submitted. Later on, these opinions were analysed. The main conclusions of the study are as follows: It was observed that the outcomes of SBEP, SVET and MVET Projects funded by the European Union were extended throughout the country. Considering the preparation, implementation and outcomes of SBEP, SVET and MVET projects, the common strengths of these projects were mostly related with strong embrace of the project by the parties, well designed TORs and aims, and having adequate budgets, while the weaknesses of these projects were related with long implementation periods, having very different components, procedures of procurement envisaged in the legislation, lack of experienced staff and difficulties faced by local administrations in terms of sustainability of these projects. SBEP, SVET and MVET projects have had a significant impact on the change of the MoNE's vision since these projects were the first ones under the institutional structure of the MoNE. SBEP helped Turkey to undertake its commitments under the “Education and Culture” chapter and those related with the “Fundamental Human Rights” during EU accession process. Thanks to these projects, Government of Turkey has proved its decisiveness on educational reforms and caught up with the European Union norms and contributed a lot to its accession process to the EU. SVET Project has solved such issues as what kind of discussions on vocational training and how should be held. Experience of the European Union on vocational education has been deemed as an important comparison tool. However, at the end, it has been concluded that it is essential to develop a system specific to Turkey.