European Defence Agency Research Articles

Qui porte le fardeau ? Les coûts de la production de défense dans l’Union européenne

Les pays de l’UE forment-ils une alliance militaire optimale, dans laquelle le fardeau de la sécurité serait équitablement partagé ? Pour répondre à cette question, cet article reprend les travaux de la théorie des alliances qui vise à comparer les bénéfices attendus aux coûts supportés. L’originalité consiste à examiner ces coûts sous divers angles : en plus de la dimension budgétaire, nous retenons les dimensions d’innovation (budget de R&D), capacitaires (budget d’équipement) et opérationnelles (projection de forces). Ce travail empirique s’appuie sur une base de données de l’Agence européenne de défense (AED), sur la période 2005-2014. Les résultats montrent que l’UE tend à se comporter comme une alliance sur les dimensions personnel et troupes déployées mais pas sur les dépenses de recherche et développement, d’équipements ni sur les budgets de défense dans leur globalité.

ANALYSIS ON THE LEADING TRENDS AND CAPABILITIES OF UAV‘S AND THEIR APPLICATION IN THE EUROPEAN COOPERATION PROJECTS

The European Defense Agency (EDA) is the key institution of the European Union in the implementation of the Common Security and Defense Policy (CSDP) resource provision measures. The Agency has set objectives in the field of military resource development, defense research and development, pan-European cooperation projects on armaments, strengthening the industrial and technological structure and as a key direction, the creation of a joint competitive market for military and dual-use products. Significant progress has also been made in the area of unmanned aerial vehicles (Remote Piloted Aircraft Systems, RPAS). The aim of the project is to introduce unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) into the internal airspace. The Agency coordinates the interaction of the UAV national operators, the European Commission represented by the Directorate-General for Mobility and Transport and the European UAV Leading Group. Keywords: European defense agency, military integration, unmanned aerial vehicles, European cooperation projects.

Autonomização da Defesa Europeia por Via da Diferenciação: Cooperação Estruturada Permanente

The Lisbon Treaty provided for the establishment of Permanent Structured Cooperation (CEP). In 2017, a group of 25 Member States decided join the CEP jointly in order to facilitate defence cooperation. To this end, the participating E-M have collaborated in several defence projects and sectors with the gradual goal of building common defence. The AR / VP is the figure who coordinates a fully orchestra, in tune with the European Defence Agency and the European External Action Service, so that CEP projects have a good progress. It will be demonstrated that the CARD, the CDP and the EDF are essential for CEP to provide the necessary assets for the real impact on the Union’s defence capabilities. Portugal proved to be careful, but assertive in this process and can provide an important contribution in the industrial and research fields.

GOVSATCOM makes EU stronger on security and defence

In the era of cyber threats and incidents related to the issue, secure communication for applications in critical circumstances responds to the growing need in Europe, where the use of commercial services is becoming insufficient. One solution that fulfils security needs is to provide accessible and reliable services based on space segment resources that are government controlled. The aim of the paper is to investigate Governmental Satellite Communication (Govsatcom), which is the first such large initiative to strengthen and increase the security and defence of the community of European countries. Furthermore, the paper discusses some implications related to the demand for this type of satellite communication and describes the engagement of the main involved institutions i.e. the European Space Agency, European Defence Agency, and European Commission, especially elaborating the PACIS projects running under ESA umbrella, which are one of the main preparatory actions for the IV EU Space Programme. Considerations about future relations between related parties and Poland’s possible engagement and the kind of benefits it would deliver are also considered. The paper leads to a conclusion that the future EU space programme creates a proper environment for cooperation between community members and delivers an opportunity to use safe and secure satellite communication for members who cannot afford to have their own capabilities.

Az Európai Védelmi Ügynökség szerepe a Magyar Honvédség forgószárnyas harcászati kiképzési képességeinek fejlesztésében

A tanulmány azt vizsgálja, hogy az Európai Védelmi Ügynökség (EDA1) által kezdeményezett magyar vonatkozású programok milyen hatással voltak és vannak a Magyar Honvédség (MH) forgószárnyas képzéseire. Bemutatja, hogy a nemzetközi szereplők milyen együttműködési folyamat eredményeként jutottak el a mai integrált kiképzési formákig, és ezek milyen eredményekkel járultak hozzá a nemzeti képesség fejlesztéséhez.
 A szerző arra hívja fel a figyelmet, hogy a programokban történő részvétel messze nem anyagi ráfordítás kérdése, hanem mindinkább a szakmai tapasztalatok és a rendelkezésre álló képességek megfelelő megosztása és felhasználása. A kor kihívásainak megfelelni képes kiképzési rendszer kialakításához és magas színvonalon tartásához az Ügynökséggel történő még szorosabb együttműködésre van szükség, ehhez a szerző javaslatokat is megfogalmaz.

Hydroacoustic System in a Biomimetic Underwater Vehicle to Avoid Collision with Vessels with Low-Speed Propellers in a Controlled Environment.

In this paper, a hydroacoustic system designed for a biomimetic underwater vehicle (BUV) is presented. The Biomimetic Underwater Vehicle No. 2 (BUV2) is a next-generation BUV built within the ambit of SABUVIS, a European Defense Agency project (category B). Our main efforts were devoted to designing the system so that it will avoid collisions with vessels with low-speed propellers, e.g., submarines. Verification measurements were taken in a lake using a propeller-driven pontoon with a spectrum similar to that produced by a submarine propulsion system. Here, we describe the hydroacoustic signal used, with careful consideration of the filter and method of estimation for the bearings of the moving obstacle. Two algorithms for passive obstacle detection were used, and the results are discussed herein.

Institutional Features of the Neo-Weberian state Civil service in the Mechanism of Management of Modern Military Organization

The author examines the institutional features of the civil service in the model of the “Neo-Weberian state” regarding improving the quality of management of a modern military system. The civil service is considered as an institution for the development of human capital, an element of civil-military synergy that guarantees the stability of management and the legitimacy of political power, including defining the goals of military policy. The study analyses the main features of representation and the realisation of the interests of actors within the framework of the civil service institute to ensure high quality of cognitive management and comprehensive national security. The author analysed the institutional features of the “Neo-Weberian state” civil service model — elitism and integrativeness, and the types of relations they form — autonomy and cognitiveness, on the example of the activities of the European Defense Agency. Analysis of the institutional features of the civil service in the “Neo-Weberian state” model in the mechanism of management of a modern military system serves to determine the motives and forms for the realisation of the interests of actors in military policy, including setting political goals of war, conducting intelligence activities and organising military-civilian cooperation.

Differentiated Integration in CSDP Through Defence Market Integration

Extract ----- Abstract New developments in the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP), such as PESCO or the European Defence Fund (EDF), challenge the differentiated integration framework put forward by Frank Schimmelfennig, Dirk Leuffen and Berthold Rittberger: this policy is not and may have never been a case of low vertical integration and uniform horizontal integration. This paper presents an amended version of their framework based on constructivist institutionalist accounts of European integration. First, it discusses their explanatory variable. Rather than interdependence per se, this paper argues that it is the construction of interdependence that matters in order to understand integration. Second, rather than focusing on primary EU law, which often obscures many policy dynamics, this paper builds on legal, institutional and practice-level elements of CSDP. Based on these changes, this paper argues that national and European actors have constructed interdependence in this policy domain, by tying together armament-related issues with single market regulation and by linking armament-related issues with CSDP’s operational-military requirements around the issue of capabilities. These processes explain CSDP’s policy-making hybridity, i.e. the combination within CSDP of a more intergovernmental policy-making mode (especially but not restricted to operational-military elements) with more supranational elements (especially but not restricted to industrial armament-related elements), as well as its horizontal differentiation. The conclusion discusses the theoretical implications of policy-making hybridity. Keywords: Aarmament; CSDP; defence-industrial policy; differentiated integration; European Commission; European Defence Agency; European Defence Fund; hybridity; PESCO

INSTITUTIONAL AND LEGAL MECHANISM OF THE EU IN THE SPHERE OF SECURITY AND DEFENCE

The article examines the features of the institutional and legal mechanism of the Union in the field of security and defence from its founding under the Maastricht Treaty in 1992 to the current stage under the Lisbon Treaty in 2007. The legal characteristics of the EU institutions, that deals with the defence and security of Member States is provided. In particular, the activities of the European Council, the Council of the EU, the European Parliament, as well as the EU High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy were analyzed. It is established that the institutional component of the EU's Common Security and Defence Policy is characterized by the preservation of the sovereign powers of the Member States, as the development and decision-making at the highest level takes place through intergovernmental bodies of the Union. The powers of subsidiary bodies established by decisions of the EU Council are studied. The activities of the Political and Security Committee, the EU Military Committee, the EU Military Staff, the European Defence Agency, and the Committee on Civilian Aspects of Crisis Management are analyzed. In particular, the Political and Security Committee is the central executive body of the Union and a kind of "engine" of the Common Foreign and Security Policy. Especially important is his work on crisis management and finding the most optimal solutions in this direction. The EU Military Committee is the highest military body of the European Union, which manages all military activities within the EU. The EU Staff is the Union's main military expert body, tasked with early warning, situation assessment and strategic planning in line with the European Security Strategy. The European Defence Agency is a center of cooperation in the field of defence policy between Member States, EU institutions and third countries. It is noted that the EU institutional mechanism in the field of security and defence is represented not only by purely military but also by civilian structures, among which the Committee on Civilian Aspects of Crisis Management is the key. It has been found that the above institutions have sole executive powers and are not empowered to make legally binding decisions for Member States. It is concluded that one of the trends in the development of the EU institutional mechanism in the XXI century is so-called military-civil synergy, which occurs through cooperation between military and civilian structures of the Union, whose activities are aimed at achieving systematic goals in security and defence issues.

Smart Acclimatization Textile Systems for Defence

The development of active and/or passive systems for acclimatization of soldiers’ uniforms is seen as an important tool to guarantee soldiers’ comfort and, consequently, to improve their performance during military missions. Accordingly, this work aimed at the development of an innovative acclimatization textile system, comprising both active and passive technologies that can act as temperature regulators in response to environmental conditions and soldiers’ body needs. This study presents the main results achieved on the performance assessment of the developed textile system, with emphasis on comfort assessment determined through characterization of the selected materials in terms of physical properties and functionalities in laboratory conditions, characterization of biophysical parameters of the clothing ensemble in a climatic chamber and preliminary field tests in non-controlled environments. This paper summarizes a part of the activities and results of EDA (European Defence Agency)’s ACCLITEXSYS project.

Az európai védelmi kiadások két olvasata

At the end of 2019, first NATO, then the European Defence Agency published their most current reports on defense expenditure trends. Even though both organisations work with national data provided, and their sampling and analytical methodology, as well as the set of member countries, somewhat differ, thus their nominal results cannot fully coincide, trends in both cases are similar and lead to the same conclusion: European countries have significantly increased their defence spending since 2014. This paper compares the conclusions of the two reports and offers an analysis of the drivers behind the trends.

Can the circular economy be transposed into the EU defence sector The case of the Dutch Ministry of Defence and a roadmap

Traditionally, defence has not been subject to obligations under the EU resource-efficiency directives, the argument being that the armed forces of member states need to remain unencumbered by regulations in order to maintain capabilities and operational effectiveness. Yet, within the EU defence sector several instances of circular economy principles were already in practice thereby improving operational resilience. With the adoption of multiple legislative measures since the 1990s, the EU has accepted greater responsibility in sustainability and resource productivity to its member states, beginning with the 1994 Directive on Packaging and Packaging Waste to the energy and climate targets of Europe 2020. In November 2016, the EU Commission moved forward with the European Defence Action Plan, including provision to introduce/transpose circular economy principles to defence. This article presents the findings of an exploratory study originally undertaken as an assessment for the European Defence Agency. The investigation captures practices in the defence sector that exemplify circular economy principles and highlights the significance of the findings.

Taking production relations seriously: the role of defence firms in armaments cooperation

ABSTRACTCoordinating defence-industrial relations towards harmonising and facilitating procurement policies, production processes and the joint operability of their member-states’ national defence sectors, International Armaments Organisations (IAOs) play an important role in armaments cooperation. How can we explain their institutional development? Existing literature tackles this question using International Relations theories to mid-range theories of institutions and integration. However, they adopt overly state-centric viewpoints, assume actor interests as given, and disregard the changes in the global economic landscape that constitute the backdrop of armaments cooperation. In response, we shift the focus onto a key group of actors: the defence firms. Using a Neo-Gramscian Historical Materialist approach, we investigate how the globalisation of the defence market has created a transnational defence-industrial class in Europe, and demonstrate how its economic interests have fundamentally shaped the institutional frameworks of European IAOs. We focus on the Organisation for Joint Armaments Cooperation (OCCAR) and the European Defence Agency (EDA) to illustrate our argument. Our conclusions have implications for the study of armaments cooperation, particularly highlighting how the economic nature of this policy domain necessitates a closer look at the global and regional production relations, and the agency of the defence firms.

Strategic decision making in cyber security: Lessons learned

The threats to the international community currently emerging in cyber space represent great challenges to security and it is of utmost importance to be ready to respond. This calls for a stronger and more resilient community, which will be well prepared to face these new challenges. The paper considers the preparation of strategic leaders to deal with cyber space crisis management processes in the form of a European Defence Agency (EDA) tabletop exercise. This is developed from the EU approach to cyber crisis management and the efforts undertaken by the European Defence Agency and European Cyber Security Initiative (ECSI), as well as a customised scenario based upon the Austrian Cyber Security Strategy. The paper gives a brief history of the development of the cyber crisis management exercise and explains its purpose, which is to devise an exercise curriculum for a coherent conceptual toolkit that could be used in assessing current decision-making frameworks. It describes how to run such a decision-making exercise, building on concepts and methodologies used to manage a cyber security crisis. It gives an overview of typical situations, threats, nature and likelihood, possible impact and the assessment of typical cyber situations, illustrated with scenarios, frameworks and doctrines. It further deals with response management, options, decisions (outcome, execution) and success control. Last but not least, it describes lessons identified and learned, offers a short evaluation of the exercise and the process of decision making and draws some conclusions.

State–defence industry relations in the European context: French and UK interactions with the European Defence Agency

ABSTRACTWhile many have noted that EU member states have different preferences over the prospect of an integrated EU defence, analyses that specifically explore state–industry relations in the definition of EU defence-industrial issues, and in the evolution of the Common Security and Defence Policy in general, are lacking. This is surprising, given that different configurations of government–industry relations have represented a persistent impediment to European defence-industrial cross-border collaboration. This article investigates how state–defence industry relations impact on member states’ preferences towards the EU defence-industrial framework. Based on the case studies of the interaction of France and the UK with the European Defence Agency, this analysis focuses on the difference between public and private defence firms’ governance settings as the crucial explanatory variable accounting for diverging member states’ preferences in this domain.

The Role of Experts in the European Defence Agency: An Emerging Transgovernmental Network

The European Defence Agency (EDA), thanks to the adoption of a large number of strategic documents and its expertise in the formulation of collaborative projects, has become a crucial player in the European defence field. However, the role of the EDA and the everyday practices of the people that work in and collaborate with the Agency remain to be studied systematically. No empirical studies have been conducted to assess the EDA ‘hybrid’ way of working that includes European, governmental and non-governmental experts. The article argues that the EDA is at the core of an emerging transgovernmental network of European defence experts and professionals, that are able to share best practices, ‘know how’ and develop common norms of communication. This transgovernmental network of experts is generating a process of informal socialization among defence practitioners, it is shaping Member States’ defence planning in research and technology (R&T) activities and, in general, it is legitimizing the role of EDA in the broader EU institutional context.

Italy’s defence policy in the European context: the case of the European Defence Agency

ABSTRACTThe creation of the European Defence Agency (EDA) in 2004 represented an important step towards more cooperation in the European defence industry. Notwithstanding the Agency’s potential for redefining relations between domestic and European defence industries, few analysts have systematically examined the EU member states’ preferences towards the EDA. This article – focusing on two theoretical approaches to uncovering the contradictory nature of EU defence-industry cooperation – investigates the specific case of Italian interaction with the Agency. Despite the predominantly empirical focus of the analysis, I argue that a detailed investigation of Italian interaction with the Agency sheds light on unexplored aspects of its behaviour in the EU context, contributing to the recent academic debate on Italian foreign, security and defence policy.

The Single European Sky: a window of opportunity for EU–NATO relations

ABSTRACTTo cope with increasing air traffic congestion, the European Union launched the Single European Sky in the early 2000s, intending to reform the European airspace which, at that time, was still fragmented by national frontiers. However, this has not been a purely civilian task, as military air transport is likewise affected. In fact, NATO has been concerned by the challenges facing the European Air Traffic Management environment due to the growing commercial aviation since its early days. For this, the European Defence Agency has been tasked to coordinate military views, thus opening a window of opportunity for EU–NATO relations. Both organisations promoting close coordination between the users of civilian and military airspace have built direct contact with each other. While examining how NATO and the EU are shaping their informal cooperation in this sector, the article considers the airspace community of users as a configuration of relations where inevitable inter- and intra-institutional power play is involved to reform the European airspace.

New technologies for defence: the role of the European Defence Agency

New technologies for defence: the role of the European Defence Agency

The Principles of Classified Information Protection Handled in Communication and Information Systems Within the Realisation of European Defence Agency Research Projects

Abstract The article presents the aspects of Communication and Information Systems security principles for classified Information Security Management System implemented within the realization of European Defence Agency research and technology projects. In the content of article, author characterised the rules and procedures, resulting from the legal acts, which regulates IT security procedures of classified information processing, obtained during the realisation of research process. Special attention has been focused on the European Defence Agency projects during which common IT security procedures are very important to provide not only the proper level of secrecy but also to ensure confidentiality, integrity and availability of all information processed during the research process.