EU/European Economic Area Research Articles

The risk of long-term opioid use among immigrants: a national registry-linkage study.

We aimed to investigate the association between being an immigrant and long-term prescription opioid use in Norway in 2010-2019. Nested case-control study. The cases were all persons 18 years of age or older with long-term opioid use - that is, the use of prescription opioids longer than 3 months (N=215,642). Cases were matched to four controls who filled at least one opioid prescription, but never developed long-term opioid use in the study period (N=862,568) on sex, age and year of starting long-term/short-term opioid use. Being an immigrant was defined as being born outside of Norway to two foreign-born parents and four foreign-born grandparents. Adjusting for socioeconomic variables and clinical confounders, analyses were stratified on three age groups (18-44 years, 45-67 years and ⩾68 years). For the youngest age group, being an immigrant was inversely associated with long-term opioid use (adjusted odds ratio 0.75; 95% confidence interval [0.72-0.77]) compared with being native-born people. For this age group, the odds ratio differed between people born in Africa (0.56 [0.52-0.62]), Central or South America (0.70 [0.62-0.79]), Europe outside the European Union (EU) (0.71 [0.65-0.77]), Asia including Turkey (0.80 [0.77-0.84]) and EU/European Economic Area (EEA) (0.81 [0.77-0.85]). For the middle age group, increased odds were found for immigrants versus natives (1.05 [1.02-1.08]) in particular for those born in North America (1.26 [1.13-1.40]) and the EU/EEA (1.13 [1.09-1.18]). There was no association in the oldest group. Compared with native-born people, immigrants had lower odds of long-term opioid use among younger adults, higher odds among middle-aged and similar odds among older adults.

Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on community antibiotic consumption in the EU/European Economic Area: a changepoint analysis.

A decrease in community antibiotic consumption in Europe has been observed during the COVID-19 pandemic. The magnitude of this decrease, how fast after the outbreak it occurred, whether it was sustained during the pandemic and whether the seasonal variation in antibiotic consumption was affected, have not yet been evaluated in detail. Data on community antibiotic consumption were available from the European Surveillance of Antimicrobial Consumption Network for 28 EU/European Economic Area (EEA) countries between 2010 and 2021. Antibiotic consumption was expressed as DDDs per 1000 inhabitants per day (DID). The impact of the pandemic on antibiotic consumption was investigated using descriptive statistics and non-linear mixed changepoint models for quarterly and yearly data. The decrease in overall antibiotic consumption between 2019 and 2020 (-3.4 DID; -18.6%) was mainly due to a decrease in the consumption of penicillins [Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical (ATC) code J01C] (-1.9 DID; -23.0%), other β-lactam antibacterials (J01D) (-0.6 DID; -25.8%) and macrolides, lincosamides and streptogramins (J01F) (-0.5 DID; -17.4%) and was sustained during 2021. The changepoint analysis of yearly data (28 countries) estimated a decrease of 3.3 DID in overall antibiotic consumption (J01) between 2019 and 2020. The analysis of quarterly data (16 countries) estimated a decrease in overall antibiotic consumption (J01) of 4.0 DID and a decrease in seasonal variation of 1.2 DID between the first and second quarters of 2020. The changepoint analysis indicated a significant, sudden and steep decrease in community antibiotic consumption in the EU/EEA immediately after the start of the COVID-19 outbreak in Europe, as well as a decrease in its seasonal variation.

Public information on shortages in the EU/EEA: improvements made between 2018 and 2020

BackgroundIn July 2019, the Heads of Medicines Agencies/European Medicines Agency (HMA/EMA) Task Force on Availability of Authorised Medicines for Human and Veterinary Use (TFAAM) published good practice guidance which provides...

The EU Response to COVID-19: From Reactive Policies to Strategic Decision-Making.

The EU Response to COVID-19: From Reactive Policies to Strategic Decision-Making.

Consumption of tetracyclines, sulphonamides and trimethoprim, and other antibacterials in the community, European Union/European Economic Area, 1997-2017.

ObjectivesData on consumption of tetracyclines, sulphonamides and trimethoprim, and other antibacterials were collected from 30 EU/European Economic Area (EEA) countries over two decades. This article reviews temporal trends, seasonal variation, presence of change-points and changes in the composition of main subgroups of tetracyclines, sulphonamides and trimethoprim and other antibacterials.MethodsFor the period 1997–2017, data on consumption of tetracyclines (ATC group J01A), sulphonamides and trimethoprim (ATC group J01E), and other antibacterials (ATC group J01X) in the community and aggregated at the level of the active substance, were collected using the WHO ATC/DDD methodology (ATC/DDD index 2019). Consumption was expressed in DDD per 1000 inhabitants per day and in packages per 1000 inhabitants per day. Consumption of tetracyclines, sulphonamides and trimethoprim, and other antibacterials was analysed based on ATC-4 subgroups and presented as trends, seasonal variation, presence of change-points and compositional changes.ResultsIn 2017, consumption of tetracyclines, sulphonamides and trimethoprim, and other antibacterials in the community expressed in DDD per 1000 inhabitants per day varied considerably between countries. Between 1997 and 2017, consumption of tetracyclines did not change significantly, while its seasonal variation significantly decreased over time. Consumption of sulphonamides and trimethoprim significantly decreased until 2006, and its seasonal variation significantly decreased over time. The consumption of other antibacterials showed no significant change over time or in seasonal variation.ConclusionsConsumption and composition of tetracyclines, sulphonamides and trimethoprim, and other antibacterials showed wide variations between EU/EEA countries and over time. This represents an opportunity to further reduce consumption of these groups in some countries and improve the quality of their prescription.

Consumption of quinolones in the community, European Union/European Economic Area, 1997-2017.

ObjectivesData on quinolone consumption in the community were collected from 30 EU/European Economic Area (EEA) countries over two decades. This article reviews temporal trends, seasonal variation, presence of change-points and changes in the composition of main subgroups of quinolones.MethodsFor the period 1997–2017, data on consumption of quinolones, i.e. ATC group J01M, in the community and aggregated at the level of the active substance, were collected using the WHO ATC/DDD methodology (ATC/DDD index 2019). Consumption was expressed in DDD per 1000 inhabitants per day and in packages per 1000 inhabitants per day. Quinolone consumption was analysed by subgroups based on pharmacokinetic profile, and presented as trends, seasonal variation, presence of change-points and compositional changes.ResultsIn 2017, quinolone consumption in the community expressed in DDD per 1000 inhabitants per day varied by a factor of 8.2 between countries with the highest (Bulgaria) and the lowest (Norway) consumption. The second-generation quinolones accounted for >50% of quinolone consumption in most countries. Quinolone consumption significantly increased up to 2001, and did not change significantly afterwards. Seasonal variation increased significantly over time. Proportional consumption of third-generation quinolones significantly increased over time relative to that of second-generation quinolones, while proportional consumption of both third- and second-generation quinolones significantly increased relative to that of first-generation quinolones. Levofloxacin and moxifloxacin represented >40% of quinolone consumption in the community in southern EU/EEA countries.ConclusionsQuinolone consumption in the community is no longer increasing in the EU/EEA, but its seasonal variation continues to increase significantly as is the proportion of quinolones to treat respiratory infections.

Consumption of macrolides, lincosamides and streptogramins in the community, European Union/European Economic Area, 1997-2017.

ObjectivesData on the consumption of macrolides, lincosamides and streptogramins (MLS) in the community were collected from 30 EU/European Economic Area (EEA) countries over two decades. This article reviews temporal trends, seasonal variation, presence of change-points and changes in composition of the main subgroups of MLS.MethodsFor the period 1997–2017, data on consumption of MLS, i.e. ATC group J01F, in the community and aggregated at the level of the active substance, were collected using the WHO ATC/DDD methodology (ATC/DDD index 2019). Consumption was expressed in DDD per 1000 inhabitants per day and in packages per 1000 inhabitants per day. Consumption of MLS was analysed and presented as trends, seasonal variation, presence of change-points and compositional changes, using a classification based on mean plasma elimination half-life for macrolides.ResultsIn 2017, consumption of MLS in the community expressed in DDD per 1000 inhabitants per day varied by a factor of 13 between countries with the highest (Greece) and the lowest (Sweden) consumption. Consumption of MLS did not change significantly up to 2003, after which it significantly increased up to 2007. No significant change was observed after 2007. Consumption of MLS showed high seasonal variation. The proportional consumption of long-acting macrolides significantly increased over time compared with that of intermediate-acting macrolides, and proportional consumption of the latter increased compared with that of short-acting macrolides.ConclusionsConsumption of MLS did not change significantly over time during 2007–2017, while the proportional consumption of long-acting macrolides increased. Seasonal variation remained high, which suggests that MLS are still prescribed inappropriately in many countries.

Change-points in antibiotic consumption in the community, European Union/European Economic Area, 1997-2017.

ObjectivesSurveillance of antibiotic consumption in the community is of utmost importance to inform and evaluate control strategies. Data on two decades of antibiotic consumption in the community were collected from 30 EU/European Economic Area (EEA) countries. This article reviews temporal trends and the presence of abrupt changes in subgroups of relevance in antimicrobial stewardship.MethodsFor the period 1997–2017, data on yearly antibiotic consumption in the community, aggregated at the level of the active substance, were collected using the WHO ATC classification and expressed in DDD (ATC/DDD index 2019) per 1000 inhabitants per day. We applied a range of non-linear mixed models to assess the presence of changes in the consumption of antibacterials for systemic use (ATC group J01) and eight antibiotic subgroups.ResultsFor the majority of the studied groups, a country-specific change-point model provided the best fit. Depending on the antibiotic group/subgroup and on the country, change-points were spread out between 2000 and 2013.ConclusionsDue to the heterogeneity in antibiotic consumption in the community across EU/EEA countries, a country-specific change-point model provided the better fit. Given the limitations of this model, our recommendation for the included countries is to carefully interpret the country-specific results presented in this article and to use the tutorial included in this series to conduct their own change-point analysis when evaluating the impact of changes in regulations, public awareness campaigns, and other national interventions to improve antibiotic consumption in the community.

Quality appraisal of antibiotic consumption in the community, European Union/European Economic Area, 2009 and 2017.

ObjectivesThe quality of antibiotic consumption in the community can be assessed using 12 drug-specific quality indicators (DSQIs) developed by the European Surveillance of Antimicrobial Consumption (ESAC) project. We compared quality in 2009 and 2017 in the EU/European Economic Area (EEA) and evaluated the impact of using different DDD values (ATC/DDD indices 2011 and 2019) for the 2009 quality assessment using these DSQIs and a joint scientific opinion (JSO) indicator.MethodsWe calculated the 12 DSQIs and the JSO indicator for 2017 and for 2009 for EU/EEA countries able to deliver values. For each of the indicators we grouped the 2017 and 2009 indicator values into four quartiles. To evaluate changes in quality between 2009 and 2017, we used the quartile distribution of the 2009 indicator values in 30 EU/EEA countries as benchmarks. In addition, we compared the quality assessment for 2009 using the ATC/DDD indices 2011 and 2019.ResultsIn 2017, a difference in the quality of antibiotic consumption in the community between northern and southern EU/EEA countries remained, but also several eastern EU/EEA countries shifted towards lower quality. Quality of antibiotic consumption decreased between 2009 and 2017 in particular indicator values for penicillin, quinolone, relative β-lactam and broad- versus narrow-spectrum antibiotic consumption, and seasonal variation. Using different ATC/DDD indices did not substantially change countries’ ranking based on their DSQI values.ConclusionsThe quality of antibiotic consumption in the community as measured by the DSQIs further decreased between 2009 and 2017, especially in Southern and Eastern European countries. A continuous effort to improve antibiotic consumption is essential to reduce antibiotic consumption in general and the use of broad-spectrum antibiotics in particular.

Analysing the trend over time of antibiotic consumption in the community: a tutorial on the detection of common change-points.

ObjectivesThis tutorial describes and illustrates statistical methods to detect time trends possibly including abrupt changes (referred to as change-points) in the consumption of antibiotics in the community.MethodsFor the period 1997–2017, data on consumption of antibacterials for systemic use (ATC group J01) in the community, aggregated at the level of the active substance, were collected using the WHO ATC/DDD methodology and expressed in DDD (ATC/DDD index 2019) per 1000 inhabitants per day. Trends over time and presence of common change-points were studied through a set of non-linear mixed models.ResultsAfter a thorough description of the set of models used to assess the time trend and presence of common change-points herein, the methodology was applied to the consumption of antibacterials for systemic use (ATC J01) in 25 EU/European Economic Area (EEA) countries. The best fit was obtained for a model including two change-points: one in the first quarter of 2004 and one in the last quarter of 2008.ConclusionsAllowing for the inclusion of common change-points improved model fit. Individual countries investigating changes in their antibiotic consumption pattern can use this tutorial to analyse their country data.

Consumption of penicillins in the community, European Union/European Economic Area, 1997-2017.

ObjectivesData on consumption of penicillins in the community were collected from 30 EU/European Economic Area (EEA) countries over two decades. This article reviews temporal trends, seasonal variation, presence of change-points and changes in the composition of the main subgroups of penicillins.MethodsFor the period 1997–2017, data on consumption of penicillins, i.e. β-lactam antibacterials, penicillins (ATC group J01C), in the community aggregated at the level of the active substance, were collected using the WHO ATC/DDD methodology (ATC/DDD index 2019). Consumption was expressed in DDD per 1000 inhabitants per day and in packages per 1000 inhabitants per day. Consumption of penicillins was analysed based on ATC-4 subgroups, and presented as trends, seasonal variation, presence of change-points and compositional changes.ResultsIn 2017, consumption of penicillins in the community expressed in DDD per 1000 inhabitants per day varied by a factor of 4.9 between countries with the highest (Spain) and the lowest (the Netherlands) consumption. An increase in consumption of penicillins, which was not statistically significant, was observed between 1997 and 2003 and up to 2010. A decrease, which was not statistically significant, was observed from 2010 onwards. Proportional consumption of combinations of penicillins, including β-lactamase inhibitors (J01CR) increased during 1997–2017, which coincided with a decrease in the proportional consumption of extended-spectrum penicillins (J01CA) and narrow-spectrum penicillins (J01CE).ConclusionsConsiderable variation in the patterns of consumption of penicillins was observed between EU/EEA countries. The consumption of penicillins in the EU/EEA community did not change significantly over time, while the proportional consumption of combinations of penicillins increased.

High susceptibility to zoliflodacin and conserved target (GyrB) for zoliflodacin among 1209 consecutive clinical Neisseria gonorrhoeae isolates from 25 European countries, 2018.

Novel antimicrobials for treatment of gonorrhoea are imperative. The first-in-class spiropyrimidinetrione zoliflodacin is promising and currently in an international Phase 3 randomized controlled clinical trial (RCT) for treatment of uncomplicated gonorrhoea. We evaluated the in vitro activity of and the genetic conservation of the target (GyrB) and other potential zoliflodacin resistance determinants among 1209 consecutive clinical Neisseria gonorrhoeae isolates obtained from 25 EU/European Economic Area (EEA) countries in 2018 and compared the activity of zoliflodacin with that of therapeutic antimicrobials currently used. MICs of zoliflodacin, ceftriaxone, cefixime, azithromycin and ciprofloxacin were determined using an agar dilution technique for zoliflodacin or using MIC gradient strip tests or an agar dilution technique for the other antimicrobials. Genome sequences were available for 96.1% of isolates. Zoliflodacin modal MIC, MIC50, MIC90 and MIC range were 0.125, 0.125, 0.125 and ≤0.004-0.5 mg/L, respectively. The resistance was 49.9%, 6.7%, 1.6% and 0.2% to ciprofloxacin, azithromycin, cefixime and ceftriaxone, respectively. Zoliflodacin did not show any cross-resistance to other tested antimicrobials. GyrB was highly conserved and no zoliflodacin gyrB resistance mutations were found. No fluoroquinolone target GyrA or ParC resistance mutations or mutations causing overexpression of the MtrCDE efflux pump substantially affected the MICs of zoliflodacin. The in vitro susceptibility to zoliflodacin was high and the zoliflodacin target GyrB was conserved among EU/EEA gonococcal isolates in 2018. This study supports further clinical development of zoliflodacin. However, additional zoliflodacin data regarding particularly the treatment of pharyngeal gonorrhoea, pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics and resistance selection, including suppression, would be valuable.

Broad-spectrum antibiotic use in Europe: more evidence of cultural influences on prescribing behaviour.

Sociocultural factors have been hypothesized as important drivers of inappropriate antibiotic prescribing in European ambulatory care. This study sought to assess whether they can also explain the reported variation in broad-spectrum antibiotic (Br-Ab) use among EU/European Economic Area (EEA) countries. Correlation and regression analysis were performed, using the bootstrap method, between Br-Ab ratios reported from 28 EU countries by the ECDC, and national Hofstede cultural dimensions and control of corruption (CoC) scores. Significant bootstrapping correlation coefficients were identified between Br-Ab ratios and the dimension of uncertainty avoidance (UAI) as well as CoC. However, following both bootstrapping multiple regression and generalized linear modelling, only UAI was retained as the sole predictor. A logarithmic model explained 58.6% of the variation in European Br-Ab variability solely using national UAI scores (P < 0.001). Br-Ab prescribing appears to be driven by the level of UAI within the country. Any interventions aimed at reducing Br-Ab in high-consuming EU/EEA countries need to address this cultural perception to maximize their chances of success.

Improving preparedness to respond to cross-border hepatitis A outbreaks in the European Union/European Economic Area: towards comparable sequencing of hepatitis A virus.

IntroductionSequence-based typing of hepatitis A virus (HAV) is important for outbreak detection, investigation and surveillance. In 2013, sequencing was central to resolving a large European Union (EU)-wide outbreak related to frozen berries. However, as the sequenced HAV genome regions were only partly comparable between countries, results were not always conclusive.AimThe objective was to gather information on HAV surveillance and sequencing in EU/European Economic Area (EEA) countries to find ways to harmonise their procedures, for improvement of cross-border outbreak responses.MethodsIn 2014, the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) conducted a survey on HAV surveillance practices in EU/EEA countries. The survey enquired whether a referral system for confirming primary diagnostics of hepatitis A existed as well as a central collection/storage of hepatitis A cases’ samples for typing. Questions on HAV sequencing procedures were also asked. Based on the results, an expert consultation proposed harmonised procedures for cross-border outbreak response, in particular regarding sequencing. In 2016, a follow-up survey assessed uptake of suggested methods.ResultsOf 31 EU/EEA countries, 23 (2014) and 27 (2016) participated. Numbers of countries with central collection and storage of HAV positive samples and of those performing sequencing increased from 12 to 15 and 12 to 14 respectively in 2016, with all countries typing an overlapping fragment of 218 nt. However, variation existed in the sequenced genomic regions and their lengths.ConclusionsWhile HAV sequences in EU/EEA countries are comparable for surveillance, collaboration in sharing and comparing these can be further strengthened.

The historical experience and practice of fight against tuberculosis in country which is one of the high drug resistant-tuberculosis (DR-TB) burden countries in European Union (EU).

SummaryDespite considerable efforts and quite early initiated anti-tuberculosis (TB) actions, Lithuania still remains one of the European Union (EU) countries with the highest tuberculosis rates, especially multidrug-resistant (MDR) TB. According to the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, in 2016, 58 994 cases of TB were reported in 30 EU/European Economic Area (EEA) countries. MDR TB was reported for 3.7% of 36 071 cases with drug susceptibility testing results and continues to be highest in the three Baltic countries - Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.In this article we present the Lithuanian anti-TB action history review and comparison with other countries in this area of action. Literature review was performed by using documents available in the Martynas Mazvydas Library’s resource, articles of foreign authors and archival materials.According to archaeological studies, tuberculosis was common in Europe including Lithuania in the Middle Ages. Tuberculosis reporting started in Lithuania in 1926. The first tuberculosis sanatorium in Lithuania was opened in 1891. Patients were treated with sun bathing procedures, fresh air and sunlight. Later the treatment included pneumothorax, toracocaustic, toracoplastic, treatment with gold products and other procedures. Lithuania introduced directly observed treatment, short course therapy (DOTS) in 1999, and since 2007 it has been working in accordance with the requirements of this strategy.

Assessment of HIV molecular surveillance capacity in the European Union, 2016.

IntroductionExpanding access to HIV antiretroviral treatment is expected to decrease HIV incidence and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) mortality. However, this may also result in increased HIV drug resistance (DR). Better monitoring and surveillance of HIV DR is required to inform treatment regimens and maintain the long term effectiveness of antiretroviral drugs. As there is currently no formal European Union (EU)-wide collection of HIV DR data, this study aimed to assess the current HIV molecular surveillance capacity in EU/European Economic Area (EEA) countries in order to inform the planning of HIV DR monitoring at EU level. Methods: Thirty EU/EEA countries were invited to participate in a survey on HIV molecular surveillance capacity, which also included laboratory aspects. Results: Among 21 responding countries, 13 reported using HIV sequence data (subtype and/or DR) for surveillance purposes at national level. Of those, nine stated that clinical, epidemiological and sequence data were routinely linked for analysis. Discussion/conclusion: We identified similarities between existing HIV molecular surveillance systems, but also found important challenges including human resources, data ownership and legal issues that would need to be addressed.Information on capacities should allow better planning of the phased introduction of HIV DR surveillance at EU/EEA level.

United Kingdom welfare benefit reforms in 2013–2014: Roma between the pillory, the precipice and the slippery slope

The 2013–2014 welfare benefits reform, which continues to undergo post-2015 election changes today, has introduced a dramatic reduction of welfare rights for European Union (EU) citizens. A particularly vulnerable and often discriminated group of these migrants are the Roma, who today come to the UK as economic migrants. This article presents preliminary findings from an on-going research study that investigates the impact these changes had on UK-resident EU/European Economic Area (EEA) Roma migrants and their families, in particular focusing on the Income-Based Jobseeker's Allowance and Housing Benefit. The findings indicate that claiming these welfare benefits can be a daunting process for this migrant group, and refusal of a claim may raise further investigations about their right to reside. This, we observe, is the result of institutional anti-immigration agenda that trickles down from the political elite to administrative bodies assessing welfare benefits claims.

A pilot validation in 10 European Union Member States of a point prevalence survey of healthcare-associated infections and antimicrobial use in acute hospitals in Europe, 2011.

We present a pilot validation study performed on 10 European Union (EU) Member States, of a point prevalence survey (PPS) of healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) and antimicrobial use in Europe in 2011 involving 29 EU/European Economic Area (EEA) countries and Croatia. A total of 20 acute hospitals and 1,950 patient records were included in the pilot study, which consisted of validation and inter-rater reliability (IRR) testing using an in-hospital observation approach. In the validation, a sensitivity of 83% (95% confidence interval (CI): 79–87%) and a specificity of 98% (95% CI: 98–99%) were found for HAIs. The level of agreement between the primary PPS and validation results were very good for HAIs overall (Cohen’s κappa (κ):0.81) and across all the types of HAIs (range: 0.83 for bloodstream infections to 1.00 for lower respiratory tract infections). Antimicrobial use had a sensitivity of 94% (95% CI: 93–95%) and specificity of 97% (95% CI: 96–98%) with a very good level of agreement (κ:0.91). Agreement on other demographic items ranged from moderate to very good (κ: 0.57–0.95): age (κ:0.95), sex (κ: 0.93), specialty of physician (κ: 0.87) and McCabe score (κ: 0.57). IRR showed a very good level of agreement (κ: 0.92) for both the presence of HAIs and antimicrobial use. This pilot study suggested valid and reliable reporting of HAIs and antimicrobial use in the PPS dataset. The lower level of sensitivity with respect to reporting of HAIs reinforces the importance of training data collectors and including validation studies as part of a PPS in order for the burden of HAIs to be better estimated.

The European Union standards for tuberculosis care: do they need an update?

The International Standards for Tuberculosis Care (ISTC), published for the first time in 2006 [1], introduced a new way of looking at clinical and public health guidelines for tuberculosis (TB). The European Respiratory Journal published an editorial explaining the ISTC, promoting the rapid uptake of the standards [2]. While guidelines represent a long, comprehensive document containing all the details the physician might need for managing TB, the standards are a simple set of 21 principles that guide day-to-day clinical decisions [3, 4]. In other words, guidelines are usually available in a physician’s library while the standards are kept on their desk in the office. The ISTC prescribe a widely accepted level of TB care which guides all healthcare providers and clinicians, both public and private, in achieving optimal standards in managing patients who have, or are suspected of having, active TB [1–4]. The European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) and the European Respiratory Society (ERS) jointly developed a European Union (EU) adaptation of the ISTC document, known as the European Union Standards for Tuberculosis Care (ESTC) [4]. These standards are tailored to the specific context of the EU/European Economic Area (EEA) as follows [4, 5]. 1) Although the majority of EU/EEA member states have a low incidence of TB, it is a heterogeneous setting with some countries having a high or intermediate level of TB, with varying levels of multidrug-resistant (MDR)-TB and TB-HIV co-infection, and some countries bordering non-EU countries with a higher TB and MDR-TB burden. 2) TB services are fully integrated and merged within the health system in the majority of EU/EEA member states. This presents peculiarities in allocating responsibilities for the delivery of TB care. 3) The EU/EEA member …