EU Rural Research Articles

Assessing the Impact of EU Rural Development Programs on Tourism

ABSTRACTIn many areas, rural development programs represent the main driver of tourism. Evaluation is essential to assess the effectiveness and efficiency of the resources allocated. However, although evaluation is mandatory under the European Commission, the methods proposed to date have paid insufficient attention to the impact of tourism. The aim of this paper is to examine the methodological tools used by the European Union to evaluate rural development programs. We conducted an analysis of European Union working documents concerning evaluation, and also performed a literature search in the main scientific databases. A total of 75 documents were studied and categorized into: (a) studies analyzing methodology, (b) descriptive studies and funding analyses, (c) contributions on the evaluation process, and (d) tourism-related studies. Although several methods have been proposed to improve the European Union’s evaluation systems, few studies have assessed the impact of tourism generated by rural development programs.

Bioenergy From Agriculture: Challenges for the Rural Development Program in Sweden

ABSTRACTThis article addresses the challenges for the EU Rural Development Program (RDP) to promote sustainable bioenergy production from agriculture. Drawing on the Swedish example, we identify opportunities for farmers and discuss agricultural-based bioenergy production in relation to the program objectives for agricultural competitiveness, sustainability and climate effects, and rural development. The sustainability and climate effects of agricultural-based bioenergy can be ascertained only through contextual analysis, and research indicates that rural development may be best promoted through local collaborative energy systems. Contrasting two ideal-type roles farmers may assume in bioenergy production, we discuss Swedish institutional contexts of energy production. In Sweden, the national energy policy tends to favor large-scale energy solutions and farmers taking on the roles as suppliers of primary products in large-scale energy systems. For RDP objectives to be realized, this tendency needs to be countered, local solutions need to be supported, and a national three-tiered energy policy integration needs to be furthered.

Investment Crowding-Out: Firm-Level Evidence from Germany

The main objective of the present paper is to estimate the extent to which firm investment is substituted (crowded-out) by investment support policies granted under the EU Rural Development Programme (RDP). In the empirical analyses we employ the difference-in-difference propensity score matching approach, which allows us to address several important sources of bias, such as selection bias, the simultaneity bias, and functional form misspecification, from which many previous studies suffer. Using panel data of 1,333 firms from the Schleswig-Holstein region in Germany, we find that the crowding-out effect of the RDP is close to 100%, implying that firms use public support to substitute for private investments. Furthermore, no evidence was found that, due to RDP programme support, firms would have brought forward their investments planned originally in a later period, rejecting the f inter-temporal substitution of investments.

Convergence of EU nitrogen surplus, the RDP indicator of water quality

The EU Water Framework Directive (WFD), EU Nitrate Directive and EU Rural Development Policy (RDP) aim to improve water quality. The nutrient content of water can be decreased by reducing nitrogen emission. In this article a novel approach is applied to the evaluation of the impact of Agri Environmental Measures (AEM), which are part of axis 2 of the EU Rural Development Programme. The spending on AEM is linked to the reduction of nitrogen surplus, and hence, to the improvement of water quality. Reduction of nitrogen surplus is considered as a beta convergence process, in which the nitrogen surplus of EU member states converges to a steady state level. The convergence is tested, applying spatial econometrics on a panel data set of EU member states. The development over time of nitrogen surplus is explained applying the conditional beta convergence methodology. To allow for varying steady state nitrogen surpluses, structural variables are added to the analysis. RDP spending on AEM was added as structural variable to evaluate whether they affect the reduction of nitrogen surplus. The fixed effects panel data specification was tested to be the best model and preferred over spatial econometric specifications. A significantly negative effect is found between AEM expenditures and nitrogen surplus. Based on these estimation results it can be concluded that spending on AEM affects the convergence of nitrogen surplus towards a steady state level. A causal relationship cannot be tested with data on EU Member State level and additional analysis at smaller spatial level is warranted.

EU의 농촌개발사업 평가체계와 시사점 -농촌마을사업 선정·평가를 중심으로-

경제 침체로 인한 예산부족으로 공공정책이 증거(evidence)에 기반해야 한다는 요구는 점점 증대되고 있다. 선진국 특히 EU의 경우 농촌개발사업의 석명성(accountability)을 확보하기 위해 1980년대부터 체계적인 평가체계를 구축하여 왔다. 그러나 국내 농촌개발사업 평가체계는 대부분 전문가의 의견을 중심으로 한 평가에 의존하는 초보적인 수준에 머물고 있다. 이에 따라 농촌개발 정책들에 대해 회의적인 시각을 가지고 있는 예산결정기구(의회, 정부부처 등) 담당자들에게 해당 정책사업의 수행실적이나 성과에 대한 객관적인 정량적 지표를 제시하지 못하고 있어 사업이 자주 축소 혹은 변경되는 문제가 발생하고 있다. 농촌개발분야 공공예산 집행에 대한 석명성과 사업수행과정에서의 시행착오를 통한 학습효과를 극대화하기 위해서는 체계적인 사업계획의 수립과 함께, 사실과 증거에 근거한 사업수행 및 수정을 위한 신뢰성있는 모니터링 및 평가체계구축이 필요하다. 첫째, 경제개발과 함께 사회개발을 주요 목표로 설정하고 평가지표를 구성할 필요가 있다. 둘째, 평가의 사후 목적이 상벌보다는 교육적 목적이 우선되도록 설계될 필요가 있다. 이를 위해서는 농촌마을사업이 '선택과 집중 모델'에서 '확산 모델'로 정책방향을 변경해야 한다. 셋째, 사업선정과 평가에 지역주민 참여를 통한 민주성을 강화할 필요성이 있다. 넸째, EU의 공통모니터링 및 평가틀(CMEF)와 같은 농촌개발 모니터링 및 평가시스템 구축이 필요하다. There is an inescapable requirement in public policy to provide evidence. For the evaluation of the EU Rural Development Policy, the European Commission has designed a Common Monitoring and Evaluation Framework(CMEF). The principal objectives of evaluations are to improve decision-making, resource allocation and accountability. In Korea, howerver, the opinion-based policy by expert is still rural development evaluation system. It does not provide the objective quantitative indicators for impact of rural development project. According to this, the budget-making body (parliament, government, etc.) have questioned the effectiveness of rural development projects, rural development projects often reduced or changed. To improve the accountability of rural development policy, it is necessary to build a reliable monitoring and evaluation system based on the evidence. First, rural development evaluation indicators should be considered the multipul goal of rural development, namely economic development, social development. Second, the purpose of the evaluation is necessary to be designed for the learning rather than reward. Third, the participation by local residents should be strengthened in evaluation process. Finally, it is necessary to establish rural development monitoring and evaluation system, such as CMEF of the EU (CMEF).

Introduction: rural women in Europe: the impact of place and culture on gender mainstreaming the European Rural Development Programme

Gender relations are socially constructed. Space and culture are key factors in this process. We consider how women's identity is constructed in rural areas of Europe. In particular, we examine the ability of gender mainstreaming to advance gender equality through the EU Rural Development Programme – the single most expensive European policy. We offer both overarching theoretical perspectives and specific case studies.

Small and Semi‐subsistence Farms in the EU: Significance and Development Paths

SummaryIn Europe, family farming is an umbrella concept which incorporates farms of many different types and sizes. Some are specialised commercial operations, while others produce mainly to satisfy household food needs, the so‐called semi‐subsistence farms (SSFs). In 2010, there were 8.1 million farms in the EU‐27 farming less than 5 ha, including 5.6 million holdings of under 2 ha. Small‐scale farming is socially of key importance in providing income and in keeping millions of farmers and their households in rural areas, thus avoiding depopulation. SSFs account for almost half of all agricultural holdings in the EU‐27, and about three‐quarters of small holdings under 2 ha of agricultural area. Their distribution varies greatly between MSs but they are located predominantly in the New Member States and the Southern EU‐15. Three main paths of development for SSFs and small farms in the EU can be envisaged, with different implications for policy: Disappearance due to absorption into larger commercialised farm holdings, or to land abandonment (e.g. in remoter areas); Transformation of SSFs into small commercial farms via greater market integration – the main development path sought by EU Rural Development policy and Continuation through diversification, non‐agricultural wage employment, or ‘forced’ re‐entry as successive family generations do not have other income sources.

Gender mainstreaming and rural development policy; the trivialisation of rural gender issues

This paper considers gender mainstreaming of the EU Rural Development Programme. The EU promotes the gender mainstreaming of rural development policies because retaining women in rural areas is seen as crucial to the long-term viability of rural areas. A review of literature and scan of policy documents demonstrates that few rural development plans address gender issues, and generally only by including some separate projects for women. Little is done to address the systemic features of gender inequality and to realise inclusive developments that address the needs of all social groups. The de-politicisation of rural gender issues results in policy makers ticking the obligatory gender box without envisioning any real change in the agenda or process of rural development policy making. I argue that a more fruitful way to go forward is to re-politicise gender in rural development and to tease out at the local level how changing gender relations and rural development coincide.

Experiencing Multi-Level Meta-Governance

This article analyses the outcome of dividing the meta-governor role among various levels of governance and describes local actors' experiences under multiple meta-governors. The empirical case presented here involves Danish local action groups in contemporary EU Rural Development and Fisheries programmes. This article takes its theoretical point of departure from the four types of meta-governance that Sørensen identified. The data analysed are derived from a survey sent to all Danish local action group board members and coordinators. The article demonstrates that authorities at the sub-national level in the context of multi-level meta-governance engage in various types of activities and identifies important differences between board members' and coordinators' perceptions of meta-governance.

Identifying Rural Areas using Entrepreneurship Indicators: a Case Study in Greece

The need for a more comprehensive, multidimensional tool for policy formulation and evaluation became evident when the negative repercussions of the EU Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) had to be faced by policy makers in the early 1990s, especially in response to rural depopulation, increasing income inequalities, and environmental degradation problems. Over the last thirty years, agricultural regions in Greece have undergone dramatic structural changes, which in turn have altered their rural identity. Changes in employment composition is an indicator of the transformations taking place in the agricultural sector, and claim for more comprehensive methodologies for rural areas for profiles. The emerging need for developing new methodologies for traditionally rural and rapidly changing regions in Europe, is pertinent to rural policies. This paper comment son the possible use of an original classification criterion based on the entrepreneurial trajectory of rural areas. Aiming at the requirements set by the new EU Rural Development Regulation EC 1698/2005, the existing methodologies are also reviewed, their strengths and weaknesses are presented, and the emerging need for an enhanced tool for rural classification is finally discussed. A flexible and effective response to policy needs (policy targeting and monitoring of rural development), the classification-typology is best derived when accounting for variables describing the entrepreneurial activity in rural areas.

The role of agriculture and urban-rural connections in lagging rural areas of Hungary

The long-term strategic objectives of the EU Rural Development Policy in the next (2014-2020) programming period are as follows: the competitiveness of agriculture, the sustainable management of natural resources and the balanced territorial development. In this strategy agriculture remains the key element as solution for lagging rural areas. Summing up our research the social functions of traditional agriculture based on local resources, the strengthening of viable farms, the increasing importance of diversification and the labor-intensive products with high added-value have to be emphasized in the new rural policy. Besides agriculture the improvement of urban-rural connections are essential for lagging rural areas as well, especially in terms of employment, availability of services and allocation of local rural products to urban markets.

A review of the role of excess soil moisture conditions in constraining farm practices under Atlantic conditions

AbstractThe Less Favoured Area (LFA) scheme is a major element of the EU Rural Development Policy, aimed at supporting farming in areas with natural handicaps or low soil productivity. It has been in place since 1975 and accounts for 14% of total Community funding. In 2003, the European Court of Auditors recommended that the socio‐economic criteria on which the current scheme is based be replaced by biophysical criteria. Reviews of the proposals suggest that in Atlantic climates of Northwest Europe, the new criteria do not delineate adequately areas where agricultural productivity is constrained by the biophysical environment and that such areas are instead demarcated by the occurrence of excess soil moisture conditions. In this paper, we review the impact of excess soil moisture conditions on the sustainability of farming systems and their role in constraining strategic and tactical farm management practices. In particular, we review the scientific evidence on the impact of excess soil moisture conditions on herbage growth, herbage utilization, farm operations and environmental sustainability. On the basis of this, we propose an additional biophysical criterion for the new delineation of LFAs, namely the length of time that soil water is in excess of field capacity (‘field capacity days’). While there is no clear threshold for field capacity days above which agricultural sustainability is acutely constrained, the evidence reviewed in this paper suggests that the sustainability of intensive livestock farming and tillage systems is particularly challenging in scenarios where the 80 percentile of field capacity days exceeds 220–230 days.

How to support the implementation of due diligence systems through the EU Rural Development Programme: problems and potentials

La Timber Regulation dell’Unione Europea e un nuovo strumento legislativo approvato dal Parlamento e dal Consiglio Europeo nell’Ottobre 2010 che entrera in vigore nel marzo del 2013. Tale Regolamento definisce gli obblighi che devono essere rispettati dagli operatori che commercializzano legno e prodotti legnosi nel mercato dell’Unione Europea, con lo scopo di contrastare la vendita di legname ottenuto da raccolta illegale nel Paese di origine. Per rispettare questo Regolamento, gli operatori dovranno implementare un sistema di “dovuta diligenza” ( Due Diligence ) che attesti che il legno che vendono deriva da attivita legali di taglio. Come alternativa, gli operatori possono anche decidere di lavorare sotto il controllo e l’assistenza di un’Organizzazione di Monitoraggio. Il presente contributo discute le opportunita e le sfide che questo Regolamento delinea per il settore forestale dell’UE, fornendo specifica attenzione al ruolo che la Politica di Sviluppo rurale per il periodo 2007-2013 puo giocare nel sostenere gli operatori dell’Unione. Gli impatti del Regolamento dipenderanno dai contenuti delle legislazioni secondarie che saranno approvate dall’UE cosi come dalle misure di sostegno che saranno attivate dalla Politica di Sviluppo rurale. Nell’implementazione del Regolamento dovra essere presa in considerazione l’esperienza maturata negli Stati Uniti dal Lacely Act in modo da trovare un compromesso accettabile tra la necessita di ridurre l’illegalita nel settore forestale e la necessita di mantenere condizioni giuste e bilanciate di competitivita nel mercato del legno

Print E-mail edit The Potential of an "Agriculture of the Middle" Model in the Context of EU Rural Development: An American Solution to an Irish Problem?

In the context of historical policies that pursue economies of scale in agriculture, and of ever-declining farm incomes among small and midsized farms, rural policies of the European Union's Common Agricultural Policy (EU CAP) have demonstrated a shift from productivist commodity agriculture toward modes of economic activity that are innovative as well as environmentally and socially sustainable. One of the key policy initiatives implemented by the EU is the Liaisons Entre Actions de Developpement de l'Economie Rurale (LEADER) initiative, a governance and rural development program designed to foster a participatory approach to cultivating economically diversified, innovative local economies. Indigenous Irish farmers have been slow to engage with the LEADER program, however. Recent research points to farmers' experiences of occupational and cultural estrangement when challenged with making the transition from primary agricultural production activities (and the associated forms of social and cultural capital that are esteemed by farmers) toward economic activities supported by LEADER that are based on service provision and processing. In light of this research, rather than focusing on encouraging farmers to adopt alternative rural enterprises, this paper proposes that a more promising policy approach may lie in a form of organizational innovation that builds on and valorizes indigenous farmers' existing range of agricultural practices. Drawing on the example of the American Agriculture of the Middle (AotM) movement, parallels are drawn between the policy aspirations of the EU governance and rural development model, and the economic, social and cultural aspirations of the AotM model. The organizational characteristics of how middle agriculture could be practicably operationalized in the Irish context are explored.

The (un)importance of the closure of village shops to rural migration patterns

This study investigates the importance of local service provision for the survival of rural areas. EU Rural Development Policy includes support to village shops as a means to sustain population. Shop closing is assumed to negatively affect migration to and from the area served. We analyse quantitative data on all Swedish village shops and the migration patterns in their market areas before and after shop closure. No significant effect of shop closure on either in- or out-migration can be established, regardless of whether larger or smaller market areas are employed or whether migrants with more urban shopping habits (i.e. commuters and families with children) are excluded. Complementary interviews in three villages where the last shop has closed verify the results.

Distribution of EU and National Funds Supporting Agriculture and Rural Development: Empirical Insights from Mazovia Region

This paper addresses the question of distribution of support from the EU budget and the national budget to agricultural holders in Mazovia region in comparison with Poland as a whole. In the first main section, the characteristics of the agricultural sector in the region, using main sectoral indicators, is presented. The second section illustrates the agricultural and rural support under the Rural Development Program and the Sectoral Operational Program “Restructuring and modernization of agriculture and rural development” provided to Mazovian beneficiaries with reference to this support at whole country level. Empirical analyses are based on Eurostat statistics as well as on data obtained from the Agency for Restructuring and Modernization of Agriculture and the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. Results of the study show that the Mazovian province, which is a region that can be placed in front of agricultural development, was awarded over the period 2004-2007 a relatively high level of support and ranked first or second among all 16 provinces according to selected measures

European Rural Development under the Common Agricultural Policy's ‘Second Pillar’: Institutional Conservatism and Innovation

Dwyer J., Ward N., Lowe P. and Baldock D. (2007) European rural development under the Common Agricultural Policy's ‘Second Pillar’: institutional conservatism and innovation, Regional Studies 41, 873–887. The EU Rural Development Regulation (RDR) was launched in 2000 as the new ‘second pillar’ of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), promoting sustainable rural development. The rhetoric surrounding the Regulation emphasized decentralized, participative delivery and a territorial and multi-sectoral focus – relatively new and unfamiliar principles for the CAP. Evidence from a European study of RDR Programmes is used to evaluate how this experiment has performed in the initial years, highlighting the need for further institutional adaptation to enable effective delivery. The relevance of lessons learned in the design and delivery of EU regional policy is also highlighted. The prospects for more effective adaptation are assessed in the light of the most recent sets of CAP reforms. Dwyer J., Ward N., Lowe P. et Baldock D. (2007) Le développement rural européen sous le deuxième pilier de la Politique agricole commune: conservatisme institutionnel et innovation, Regional Studies 41, 873–887. La Réglementation communautaire en faveur du développement rural (RDR) a été lancée en 2002 en tant que le ‘deuxième pilier’ de la Politique agricole commune (Pac), prônant le développement rural durable. Le discours qui a entouré cette réglementation a souligné une mise en oeuvre décentralisée et participative, et un point de mire territorial et à plusieurs secteurs - des principes relativement nouveaux et inhabituels à la Pac. On se sert des preuves provenant d'une étude européenne de la RDR afin d'évaluer les résultats de cette expérience dans ses débuts, tout en soulignant la nécessité d'autres adaptations institutionnelles pour faciliter une mise en oeuvre efficace. On souligne aussi l'importance des leçons tirées de la mise au point et de la mise en oeuvre de la politique régionale communautaire. A la lumière des réformes de la Pac, on évalue les perspectives pour une adaptation plus efficace. Politique agricole commune Développement rural Aménagement du territoire Apprentissage institutionnel Dwyer J., Ward N., Lowe P. und Baldock D. (2007) Europäische ländliche Entwicklung unter der ,zweiten Säule‘ der Gemeinsamen Agrarpolitik: institutioneller Konservatismus und Innovation, Regional Studies 41, 873–887. Die EU-Verordnung für ländliche Entwicklung wurde im Jahr 2000 als neue ,zweite Säule‘ der Gemeinsamen Agrarpolitik (GAP) zur Förderung der nachhaltigen ländlichen Entwicklung eingeführt. In der die Verordnung umgebenden Rhetorik wurden eine dezentralisierte, beteiligungsorientierte Umsetzung sowie ein territorialer und multisektoraler Fokus betont – relativ neue und unbekannte Prinzipien für die GAP. Wir bewerten anhand von Belegen aus einer europäischen Studie über die Programme der Verordnung für ländliche Entwicklung, zu welchen Ergebnissen dieses Experiment in den ersten Jahren geführt hat, und verdeutlichen, dass für eine wirkungsvolle Umsetzung eine weitere institutionelle Anpassung erforderlich ist. Ebenso heben wir die Relevanz der Lehren hervor, die beim Entwurf und der Umsetzung der EU-Regionalpolitik gezogen wurden. Die Chancen für eine wirkungsvollere Anpassung werden angesichts der jüngsten Reformen der GAP untersucht. Gemeinsame Agrarpolitik Ländliche Entwicklung Regionalentwicklung Institutionelles Lernen Dwyer J., Ward N., Lowe P. y Baldock D. (2007) El desarrollo rural europeo bajo el ‘segundo pilar’ de la Política Agrícola Común: conservadurismo e innovación institucionales, Regional Studies 41, 873–887. El Reglamento de Desarrollo Rural (RDR) de la UE fue introducido en 2000 como el nuevo ‘segundo pilar’ de la Política Agrícola Común (PAC), que fomenta el desarrollo rural sostenible. La retórica en torno a este Reglamento hacía hincapié en ofrecer una política descentralizada y participativa y ponía su atención en un enfoque territorial y multisectorial; unos principios relativamente nuevos y poco familiares para la PAC. Utilizamos ejemplos de un estudio europeo sobre los programas del RDR para evaluar cómo se ha desempeñado este experimento durante los primeros años, recalcando que para obtener buenos resultados, es necesario adaptarlo desde un aspecto institucional. Asimismo destacamos la importancia de las lecciones que se han aprendido en diseñar y poner en práctica la política regional de la UE. Analizamos también las perspectivas para adaptarlas de un modo más eficaz en vistas a las reformas más recientes de la PAC. Política Agrícola Común Desarrollo rural Desarrollo regional Aprendizaje institucional

Future Changes in British Agriculture: Projecting Divergent Farm Household Behaviour

The recent decline in farm incomes has focused attention on farmers' uneven propensity to adjust and adapt. Changes in farm policies are slowly redirecting the support paid to farmers in Europe, and further reforms are envisaged. This paper argues that farmers in Britain are likely to pursue highly diverse strategies in this changed context, according to their individual circumstances, values and attitudes. These groups (essentially ideal types) are derived both from in‐depth qualitative interviews and from a cluster analysis of variables relating to the farm and to the farm household's socialisation and attitudes. The paper seeks to draw out the implications of divergent farm household behaviour for future structural change, and for agricultural and rural policy. Opportunities are identified for the UK government to implement the EU Rural Development Regulation in ways that would suit the varied circumstances of British farmers in the postproductivist transition.

Ecological impacts of arable intensification in Europe

Although arable landscapes have a long history, environmental problems have accelerated in recent decades. The effects of these changes are usually externalised, being greater for society as a whole than for the farms on which they operate, and incentives to correct them are therefore largely lacking. Arable landscapes are valued by society beyond the farming community, but increased mechanisation and farm size, simplification of crop rotations, and loss of non-crop features, have led to a reduction in landscape diversity. Low intensity arable systems have evolved a characteristic and diverse fauna and flora, but development of high input, simplified arable systems has been associated with a decline in biodiversity. Arable intensification has resulted in loss of non-crop habitats and simplification of plant and animal communities within crops, with consequent disruption to food chains and declines in many farmland species. Abandonment of arable management has also led to the replacement of such wildlife with more common and widespread species. Soils have deteriorated as a result of erosion, compaction, loss of organic matter and contamination with pesticides, and in some areas, heavy metals. Impacts on water are closely related to those on soils as nutrient and pesticide pollution of water results from surface runoff and subsurface flow, often associated with soil particles, which themselves have economic and ecological impacts. Nitrates and some pesticides also enter groundwater following leaching from arable land. Greatest impacts are associated with simplified, high input arable systems. Intensification of arable farming has been associated with pollution of air by pesticides, NO2and CO2, while the loss of soil organic matter has reduced the system’s capacity for carbon sequestration. International trade contributes to global climate change through long distance transport of arable inputs and products. The EU Rural Development Regulation (1257/99) provides an opportunity to implement measures for alleviating ecological impacts of arable management through a combination of cross-compliance and agri-environment schemes. To alleviate the problems described in this paper, such measures should take account of opportunities for public/private partnerships and should integrate social, cultural, economic and ecological objectives for multifunctional land use.

Transnational Co‐operation Between Rural Areas: Elements of a Political Economy of EU Rural Development

The re‐territorialization of rural development across the eu is well under way, manifesting in a constantly evolving pan‐European mosaic of territorial initiatives. This paper considers the significance of the phenomenon in terms of the emergence of a rural development system. This pan‐European system has two functions: first, it represents a potential mode of capitalist production for territorial entities; and second, it functions as a system of distribution and co‐ordination. The record of transnational co‐operation projects created through the eu's leader ii Initiative is used to sketch a theory of the first mode based around the concept of interlocality connectivity. Taylor's ideas on global cities are borrowed in order to speculate on the potential for a hierarchy to emerge among the territorial entities of the rural development system. Attention then turns to the distributive function of the system in order to examine non‐economic flows, using Dolowitz and Marsh's ideas on the policy transfer/learning process.