EU Energy Research Articles

Implementing EU energy and climate governance: Germany and Sweden as frontrunners?

A core element in the EU’s Governance regulation (Regulation 2018/1999) is the regular production of National Energy and Climate Plans (NECPs). The process involves a dialog with the European Commission intended to lead to changed and improved plans. This new policy mechanism has been characterised as ‘harder soft governance’. Although member states are not obliged to specify binding targets for renewables and energy efficiency, they must report their contribution to fulfilling the overall European target. Furthermore, they must develop a plan for how to reach these contributions (the NECP). In this article we discuss NECP implementation in the first round of establishing NECPs in two traditional climate-policy frontrunners in the EU: Germany and Sweden. A key finding is that both countries did not perceive the NECP process as particularly important for national policy-making. Central targets and measures were mainly based on policies developed independently of the Governance Regulation. However, interaction with the Commission was more important for ‘reluctant’ Sweden than ‘Governance supporter’ Germany. Our study shows that both countries eventually produced the required contributions and plans, lending support to the argument that this new regulation has some ‘harder soft governance’ elements that will influence member states.

The European Green Deal and prospects for Ukraine

In January 2020, the European Union launched the European Green Deal, a comprehensive programme for the transition to new environmental standards in all sectors of the economy with the aim of making Europe the first carbon-neutral continent. Given Ukraine's European ambitions, it is important for it to understand the requirements of the Green Deal and assess the possibilities of taking these requirements into account in the post-war reconstruction of Ukraine. Purpose. To examine the requirements and current achievements in the implementation of the European Green Deal with a view to the prospects of Ukraine's post-war recovery. Results. Based on the EU regulations, current thematic reports, statistics and other open-source publications, the article analyses the main components of the European Green Deal in the context of plans and current achievements in their implementation in the following areas: legislative support, emissions trading system, carbon emissions regulation mechanism at the EU border, transport, energy, construction, agriculture and land use, ecosystem and biodiversity restoration, financial support of the green transition, science and education. Some promising directions of post-war recovery of Ukraine in the context of the Green Deal are considered. Conclusions. Despite the harsh criticism of the European Green Deal, it is vital to overcome the most acute environmental crisis in history, which threatens sustainable development and possibly the very existence of humanity. During the first 3 years of the Green Deal implementation, significant progress has already been made in reducing greenhouse gas emissions, although there are still some difficulties and obstacles. Ukraine has a significant potential for post-war restoration of the energy and industry sector in line with environmental requirements, but this will require significant investments.

Energy transition in Poland and Spain against changes in the EU energy and climate policy

The European Union climate policy and the subsequent energy transition are expected to cause fundamental changes in individual EU countries, their economies, and industrial sectors. Furthermore, in order to achieve them, high financial outlays are essential. The main purpose of the article is to present a comparative analysis of the pace, directions, and main factors of the energy transition in Poland and Spain against the changes in the EU energy and climate policy. In particular, the subject of the study is the changes in the fuel structure of electricity generation (energy mix) and the changes in the concentration of energy generation. The analysis concentrates on Poland and Spain against the background of the group of EU27 countries. The study adopted a long-term perspective (1990–2020). The methodology used taxonomic measures of variability of structures and measures of concentration, as well as measures of descriptive and mathematical statistics. The result of the research proves that the EU common climate and energy policy has explicitly accelerated changes in the energy mix, both in the EU27 and in the studied countries, including those traditionally based on coal. The concentration analysis demonstrated an increase in diversification resulting in a significant increase in the share of renewable and low-carbon sources. The taxonomic analysis additionally proved that there was a parallel process towards making the energy mix of the studied countries more similar to the EU27. The limitation of the research is the adopted triangulation arrangement of the studied structures (EU27, EU15, countries that accessed the EU after 2004), enforced in this pilot research, but possible to expand the field of perception in subsequent research. What serves as a proof of the originality of the study is the fulfilment of research gaps in the long-term study of the degree of changes in the concentration of the energy mix structure of EU countries, and especially the study of the degree of intensity of its similarity. The application value of the study is its use in the energy policies of countries traditionally based on coal for the indication of the taken position, the goals, and ways to achieve them based on the experience of other countries.

The evolution of the European Union’s energy policy

The main objective of this article is to present the evolution of the EU energy policy with particular reference to its legal conditions. It will present the directions of the changes in the EU legal regulations in recent decades in order. Central to this is an attempt to answer the question of whether the European Union’s ambitious goal to achieve climate neutrality by 2050, as proclaimed in the European Green Deal, should be viewed in terms of a continuation of the EU’s earlier energy policy, or perhaps more in terms of a kind of “revolution”, imposing the introduction of systemic changes in the energy sector of the Member States.

Energy Protectionism: Tren Meningkatnya Kebijakan Proteksionisme Energi di Uni Eropa

This research discusses the impact of EU energy protectionism in the face of global challenges such as the Covid-19 pandemic and the energy crisis due to the Russia-Ukraine conflict. Those two major events reveal the risks of over-dependence on foreign suppliers and the lack of diversification in the EU supply chain. As a solution, the EU has implemented various policies, including RePowerE, Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM), and Green Deal Industrial Plan (GDIP), to reduce dependence on energy imports and increase domestic renewable energy production. Through the analysis of neoliberalism and Game Theory approaches, particularly the Prisoner's Dilemma concept, this article explores the implications of protectionist policies on international trade stability. The analysis shows that while protectionist policies can strengthen the EU's energy independence and domestic security, they also have the potential to trigger international trade tensions and protectionist retaliation from other countries.

EU Energy Security After Russia’s Invasion of Ukraine – Substance, Strategy and Lobbying

The energy supply of individual countries and international organisations plays a key role for economic development. Energy is a specific good, where access to it must be stable and uninterrupted. The functioning of any country’s economy depends on a well-functioning energy sector, but unfortunately, over recent years, newer and newer threats to energy security have been emerging, in addition to the consumption of scarce natural resources. These include not only uncertain and unstable suppliers, but also natural disasters and cyber-attacks to which energy networks are increasingly exposed. Over the last few years, the issue of energy security has also become increasingly important in the EU. After Russia’s invasion of Ukraine in 2022, this policy acquired an entirely new dimension as the turbulence in EU energy markets contributed to significant economic difficulties including, among other factors, rising inflation in all EU Member States. Since then, the main priority of the EU’s energy policy has become the security and stability of energy supply. The aim of this article is to present and assess the effectiveness of the main EU measures taken to improve the EU’s energy security following Russia’s invasion of Ukraine. These actions are extremely important to ensure long-term energy security in the EU, so it is essential that only the EU’s interests are taken into account. The article also highlights the dangers of the fossil fuel lobby and their influencing the EU’s decision-making process on energy security.

The role of energy communities for thermal networks: An EU legal perspective

AbstractDecarbonising heating and cooling systems, significant contributors to the EU's (European Union) energy consumption, is a complex and urgent matter. This article discusses the potential coupling of energy communities and district heating and cooling systems, particularly fourth‐ and fifth‐generation models, in the local energy transition. The integration of new‐generation district heating and cooling systems into renewable energy generation is crucial for sustainability, circular economy practices, and community‐based solutions. An examination of the EU legal framework within the Fit‐for‐55 package elucidates how provisions from the new Energy Efficiency Directive and Renewable Energy Directive facilitate the implementation of energy communities in the heating and cooling sector. The existing enabling legislation underscores the suitability of energy communities for heating and cooling sector activities, acknowledging their transformative potential in advancing the energy transition and fostering community empowerment.

Towards effective implementation of the energy efficiency first principle: a theory-based classification and analysis of policy instruments

The energy efficiency first (EE1st) principle, embedded in the European Union's (EU) recast Energy Efficiency Directive, aims to prioritise cost-effective energy efficiency solutions over new energy supply infrastructure. These solutions encompass not only end-use energy efficiency, but also, notably, demand-side flexibility. This research bridges the gap between the theoretical underpinnings of the principle and practical policy implementation. Drawing on market failure theory, it identifies an inherent bias in EU energy markets in favour of energy supply infrastructure. By highlighting the correction of market failures – from externalities to transaction costs – through targeted policy instruments, it presents a theoretical policy intervention logic for EE1st. Based on this, it offers a set of twenty-nine established and emerging policy instruments linked to specific market failures, thus providing a systematic roadmap for EE1st application. The study concludes that levelling the playing field between energy efficiency and energy supply requires a broad policy response. This extends beyond traditional energy efficiency policy of standards and public financing, and includes instruments such as electricity market design, remuneration schemes for network operators, and emissions pricing.

ENSURING ENERGY EFFICIENCY OF SETTLEMENTS IN UKRAINE AND EU COUNTRIES: LEGAL, ECONOMIC AND MANAGERIAL ASPECTS

The study examines energy and energy-related environmental policies in the international context and their impact on the economy and businesses in the context of energy efficiency. The focus is on Ukraine's integration into the European energy market and the legislative features of energy policy. The purpose of the article is to determine the content and features of the administrative and legal regime for the use of solar energy facilities in Ukraine in the light of ensuring the requirements for the viability of human settlements. The tasks of the article were to determine the EU energy efficiency policy, its economic and regulatory justification, which can be adapted to the needs of meeting the energy needs of Ukraine in the crisis conditions of war, and to determine the strategy for the development of energy efficiency of settlements in post-war conditions. The study used general scientific and special methods, the main of which were: abstract-logical, deductive, inductive, historical, modelling and forecasting, methods of system structural, system and functional analysis, economic-statistical (grouping, comparison, etc.). As a result, the authors conclude that the reason for this is its clear advantages over traditional sources, which are difficult to refute. In some countries, the government is implementing complex public programmes with huge financial investments for gradual replacement, but so far the results remain insignificant. Ensuring an adequate level of energy efficiency in Ukraine requires the activation of processes of harmonization of the current national legislation with the standards of the EU energy and climate policy, which is connected with: amendments to the Tax Code of Ukraine in order to create conditions for attracting investors to the market of energy services; further processes of decentralization of the energy system and the spread of alternative, independently separated energy subsystems and energy resource traders; formation of artificial raw materials as sources of thermal energy.

Econometric Analysis of the Influence of Factors on the Share of Energy From Renewable Sources in the EU

The use of renewable energy is at the core of EU energy policy, reducing dependence on fossil fuels imported from non-EU countries, reducing greenhouse gas emissions and decoupling energy costs from oil prices. Currently, 22.5% of energy consumed in the EU comes from renewable sources. This increase over 2021 is due to strong growth in solar energy. This share is also increasing due to the consumption of non-renewable energy sources in 2022. According to expert forecasts, the share of renewable energy sources in Europe will continue to grow. Achieving the 42.5% target by 2030 will require a deep transformation of the European energy system. The very strong climate and energy policies pursued in the EU for about a dozen years and aimed at limiting emissions of harmful substances into the environment have led to a gradual abandonment of traditional energy sources. Increasing demand for energy while reducing its supply from traditional sources means that in order not to make the economy too dependent on energy imports, the dynamic development of renewable energy is necessary. The EU is therefore taking very extensive operational and strategic actions to use other sources for production, such as wind, solar energy, mechanical water energy, biomass and geothermal energy, as well as tidal waves, ocean heat, wave energy and sea currents. In this study, we assess the impact of energy, economic and environmental factors on the share of renewable energy in the EU. The aim of these studies was to identify the energy, economic and environmental indicators that have the greatest impact on the share of energy from renewable sources in the European Union. The study was conducted using the Statgraphics Centurion software package. The source data for the study was data from the official Eurostat website for the period from 2012 to 2022. The results of this study show that changes in gross domestic product in market prices per capita have a positive impact, as do changes in greenhouse gas emissions per capita negatively affect the share of energy from renewable sources in the EU in the period 2012-2022. This may most likely be due to the fact that EU countries are more likely to invest in renewable energy as they can afford to invest in the development of expensive renewable energy technologies and support subsidies for the promotion and regulation of renewable energy. The negative impact of per capita greenhouse gas emissions on renewable energy development is due to the high share of coal in the EU energy mix, meaning that coal not only has negative environmental impacts, but also negative environmental impacts. development of renewable energy.

EU Energy Securitisation: Ukraine's Place in the European Energy System

This article focuses on the investigation of the European Union's securitisation policy in the energy sector, in particular, the provision of energy carriers to the Union, which was developed in response to Russia's energy wars of 2006–2007 and 2008–2009 against Ukraine and indirectly against the European Union. The theory of securitisation, formulated by S. Ozkan, B. Buzan and other researchers, focuses not so much on eliminating the consequences of crises as on creating a system of securitisation for the relevant industries with increased stress resistance, diversification of economic and technological ties with partners and strengthening the social orientation of their functioning. The algorithmization of this policy and the changes that led to the institutional response to Russian aggression in the energy sector are investigated. The research is based on the approach of sociological (neo)institutionalism, which allows explaining political processes in terms of not only economic benefits, but also their importance for the development of other spheres of public life and international cooperation. This approach is based on the notion that, first, the institutional environment in which a particular institution operates provides it with the necessary resources, as well as legitimates and regulates its activities. As a result, sociological institutionalism emphasises the role of norms, rules, and culture, influencing the self-identification of actors associated with this institution, as well as defining „friends” and „foes” in the overall institutional structure. It is shown that changes in the EU energy policy are dictated not only by economic or technological considerations, but also by the requirement to meet the needs of the population and economy of the EU member states. At the same time, Ukraine's inclusion in the EU's common securitisation system is in the economic, political, and social interests of Ukraine, which, both under the Association Agreement and in the event of its accession to the EU, will have the status of an acceptor country. The article considers possible options for the EU and Ukraine to establish Ukraine as the EU's eastern securitizer and their respective consequences for both parties.

Microwave-assisted synthesis of Ni-doped europium hydroxide for photocatalytic degradation of 4-nitrophenol

Microwave-assisted synthesis method was used to prepare europium hydroxide (Eu(OH)3) and different percentages of 1, 5, and 10 % nickel-doped Eu(OH)3 (Ni–Eu(OH)3) nanorods (NRs). X-ray diffraction study showed a hexagonal phase with an average crystallite size in the range of 21 – 35 nm for Eu(OH)3 and Ni–Eu(OH)3 NRs. FT-IR and Raman studies also confirmed the synthesis of Eu(OH)3 and Ni–Eu(OH)3. The synthesized materials showed rod-like morphology with an average length and diameter between 27 – 50 nm and 8 – 13 nm, respectively. The band gap energies of Ni–Eu(OH)3 NRs were reduced (4.06 – 3.50 eV), which indicates that the doping of Ni2+ ions has influenced the band gap energy of Eu(OH)3. The PL study exhibited PL quenching with Ni doping. The photocatalytic degradation of 4-nitrophenol (4-NP) by the synthesized materials under UV light irradiation was investigated, in which 10 % Ni–Eu(OH)3 NRs showed the best response. A kinetic study was also conducted which shows pseudo-first-order kinetics. Based on this, Ni–Eu(OH)3 NRs have shown a potential to be a UV-light active material for photocatalysis.

Efficiency and renewability in energy conversion – A system perspective on policy objectives and instruments for climate change mitigation

The use of energy from renewable sources and improved efficiency throughout energy conversion, distribution and end-use are important means for mitigating climate change. This paper provides a novel exploration of the relationship between the system boundary in national greenhouse gas (GHG) inventories and policy incentives regarding technologies for GHG emission reduction, including the use of biomass, the use of heat from combined heat and power (CHP) production, industry waste heat, and energy recovery of waste. A novel generalisable applied method for applying a system perspective on a policy coherence analysis is another contribution from this paper. Major findings include the discovery that policies largely favour the use of biomass over technologies for energy efficiency, which does not adhere to the EU energy efficiency first principle. Also, although the EU largely promotes CHP production and high-efficiency CHP production, these technologies are largely opposed by Swedish policies. The following theoretical explanations for this are proposed: (1) The use of attributional GHG inventories for geographical areas induces the use of attributional climate policy objectives; and (2) The use of attributional climate policy objectives induces policies largely supporting the domestic use of technologies which potentially improve one’s own climate objective, and largely opposing the domestic use of technologies which potentially worsens one’s own climate objective, irrespective of the impact on global GHG emissions. An expansion of the current study including other policy and geographical areas is suggested for future research to further validate the generalisability of these outlined theoretical explanations. In conclusion, as the reduction of global GHG emissions is crucial for mitigating climate change, a shift from an attributional view in national GHG emission governance towards a consequential view is suggested for better efficacy in global GHG emissions reduction.

Directive 2023/1791 EED: A Step Closer to Mandatory Green Public Procurement Criteria Through Sectorial Legislation

The European Union’s Directive 2023/1791 EED is a critical step in the European Union’s trajectory towards climate neutrality by 2050, instituting enforceable Green Public Procurement criteria. This article delves into the Directive’s implementation complexities, scrutinising its potential to navigate the EU energy policy evolution and foster sustainability in public procurement. Notably, Article 7 and Annex IV of the Directive demonstrate a clear shift by mandating high energy efficiency performance standards across various sectors, signifying a move from discretionary to compulsory Green Public Procurement criteria. Despite its robust policy stance, the Directive faces practical impediments, including diverse Member States compliance levels and the need to balance regulatory directives with market dynamics. While the Directive aims to position public authorities at the forefront of sustainable procurement, catalysing market transformation, it walks a delicate line between legislative ambition and actionable enforcement. The variability in economic and technological capacities among Member States could hinder uniform application. By introducing a framework that allows for enforceable, adaptive, and technology-sensitive specifications, the Directive could bridge the gap between policy and practice, optimising its impact on energy consumption and environmental sustainability. However, addressing potential ambiguities in interpretation, the economic burden on public entities, and institutional inertia remains critical for its rigorous and effective implementation. This article provides a comprehensive analysis of Directive 2023/1791, situating it within the EU’s broader energy policy framework, and critically evaluates its potential to truly change the Union’s approach to energy efficiency and Green Public Procurement.

Experimental Validation of the Capture Chamber Model in Mutriku MOWC Wave Power Plant

Wave energy holds the potential to fulfill 15% of the EU's energy demand by 2050, thereby reducing CO2 emissions by 136 million metric tons per megawatt-hour, as outlined in the EU Energy Road Map. Similarly, the Spanish Renewable Energies Plan underscores the significant marine energy potential in Spain, particularly emphasizing wave energy. Within this framework, Oscillating Water Column (OWC) converters currently stand as among the most promising wave energy conversion technologies, offering the capability to harness ocean energy from various on-shore and floating structures. This paper introduces an analytical model of the wave capture chamber parameterized for a specific on-shore OWC wave power plant. The model is specifically adapted and parameterized for the Mutriku Marine Offshore Wave Power Plant located on the coast of the Spanish Basque Country. Subsequently, validation is conducted using both real wave entry data measured on-site and experimental output power data generated in the plant.

THE MAIN OBJECTIVES OF THE EUROPEAN UNION'S (EU) SPECIAL STRATEGY FOR CENTRAL ASIA (2007–2013)

The article examines the European Union's approach to Central Asia from 2007 to 2013, highlighting key objectives and initiatives designed to strengthen cooperation between the EU and nations in the region. This strategy encompasses a diverse range of issues, including economic growth, governance, energy security, educational development, and regional collaboration. The overarching goals of the strategy include: Economic Development: The strategy emphasizes the importance of economic partnerships, trade, and investment in promoting growth and integration of the region into the global economy. Governance and Anti-Corruption: The European Union supports governance and anti-corruption reforms that are essential for sustainable development. Energy Security: Given the significant energy resources in Central Asia, measures have been taken to diversify energy sources and increase the EU's energy independence. Education: Educational programs and initiatives aim to improve skills of the population and develop human capital in the region. Regional Cooperation: The EU actively promotes regional cooperation among Central Asian countries to contribute to peace and stability in the region. The article emphasizes the flexibility and adaptability of the EU's approach to the challenges and changing circumstances in the region. This demonstrates the European Union's commitment to playing a proactive role in promoting positive development in Central Asia and creating the conditions for long-term collaboration and shared prosperity.

Unlocking European biogas and biomethane: Policy insights from comparative analysis

The scaling up of renewable gases is now being presented as a critical and effective component of the EU's long-term decarbonization strategy. Yet, the support schemes implemented for biogas and biomethane are far less studied than the ones dedicated to renewable power generation (e.g., solar or wind). This work bridges this gap by reviewing the supporting policies implemented in the EU and conducting a retrospective comparative analysis of the mechanisms implemented in Germany, Denmark, and Italy. The analysis is based on primary data extracted from policy statements that have been harmonized. Results show that incentivizing the supply side lowers the risk associated with early investments and market development. Conversely, they highlight inhomogeneity among countries in accounting for demand and end-use in their policies. Finally, they point at the availability of feedstock and the geographic and economic structure of a country as factors influencing the development of a market for renewable gases. The analysis stresses the value of policy mix in promoting biogas and biomethane in the EU's energy mix, and it hinges on the importance of scrutinizing sectoral massification, novel business models, infrastructure integration, and enhanced financial accessibility to improve their competitiveness and market advancement within the energy landscape.

Assessing the EU Climate and Energy Policy Priorities for Transport and Mobility through the Analysis of User-Generated Social Media Content Based on Text-Mining Techniques

For over three decades, the European Union’s (EU) transport policy has aimed at fostering environmental sustainability and energy efficiency. Since 2015, European policymakers have focused more on three key sustainable development goals: decarbonizing the transport system, promoting low-emission mobility solutions, and transitioning to renewable and alternative fuels. To effectively communicate priorities and engage stakeholders, EU policymakers regularly use social media platforms like Twitter (now known as X). This active discourse involves policymakers, industrial stakeholders, the media, and the public, offering insights into the role of transport policy in addressing climate change and energy transition challenges. The current research endeavors to track and analyze the evolution of user-generated content related to climate change, energy transition, and smart mobility on Twitter from 2011 to 2021. This research uses text-mining and social network analysis techniques to quantitatively and qualitatively assess the dynamics of relevant EU policies and their effects. The study’s findings can be used to establish a robust monitoring and evaluation framework at the EU and national levels. This framework will assess the effectiveness of communicating strategic priorities for sustainable transport development. It also holds potential for application in other sectors, broadening its impact.

Disparities in Energy Productivity across the EU Countries

Energy plays a crucial role in everyday life and thus is one of the most essential inputs in all economic activities. Nowadays, the EU energy market has changed mainly due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine. The EU countries had to suddenly adapt to the new situation and secure energy supply for their citizens. But even before that, energy issues had been raised on a global scale through the United Nations’ 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. One of the seventeen Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is SDG 7: Affordable and clean energy. Therefore, this paper aims to examine energy productivity in EU countries as it should be at the heart of the ongoing debate on energy security across the EU. This study uses two sources of data: the Eurostat and OECD. The first one provides users with a composite indicator of energy productivity, which results from the division of the GDP by the gross available energy (primary production + recovered & recycled products + imports – exports + stock changes) for a given calendar year. The latter delivers an indicator of energy productivity measured in GDP per unit of total energy supply. This paper applies the β-convergence model to investigate the disparities between the EU countries in energy productivity and to see if they are widening or narrowing over time. The results show that although there are significant initial disparities, the EU countries have been converging over time; however, the speed of that process is not satisfyingly fast.

Mapping the European Union’s Renewable Energy Transition Amidst the Russo-Ukrainian War

This research paper delves into the complex interplay between the European Union's (EU) ambitious renewable energy transition and the geopolitical backdrop of the Russo-Ukrainian War. Against the backdrop of evolving global energy dynamics and the EU's commitment to sustainability, the study aims to elucidate how the conflict has shaped and influenced the EU's pursuit of renewable energy sources. The Russo-Ukrainian War, marked by geopolitical tensions and energy security concerns, has prompted the EU to reassess its energy landscape. The paper employs a multi-faceted approach, combining geopolitical analysis, policy evaluation, and energy infrastructure mapping to understand how the conflict has impacted the EU's renewable energy strategies. It scrutinises the policy shifts, regulatory frameworks, and investment patterns in the renewable energy sector within the EU member states. Furthermore, the research investigates the role of energy diplomacy and the EU's efforts to diversify its energy sources in response to the geopolitical instability stemming from the conflict. It explores the challenges and opportunities presented by the war, such as the urgency for energy independence and the need for cohesive cross-border collaboration. By employing data-driven analyses and case studies, this paper contributes to the broader discourse on the intersection of geopolitics and renewable energy transitions. It offers insights into the dynamic relationship between regional conflicts and the imperative for sustainable energy practices, providing policymakers, scholars, and industry stakeholders with valuable perspectives on navigating the intricate landscape of renewable energy transitions in the midst of geopolitical uncertainties.