EU Citizens Research Articles

Procedural (in)justice for EU citizens moving to Belgium: an inquiry into municipal registration practices

ABSTRACT Moving as a French or Dutch citizen to Belgium should be easy, given the freedom of movement of EU citizens. Reality paints a different picture, however. This paper analyses the practices of Belgian municipalities and the Immigration Office as to the registration of EU workers, self-employed, jobseekers and their family members. It is based on a desk study, a survey among a sample of municipalities as well as semi-structured interviews with municipal officials, the Immigration Office and other stakeholders. The paper adopts a legal understanding of ‘procedural justice’, focusing on dimensions of equal treatment and transparency. It shows that the achievement of procedural justice for EU citizens is impaired by divergent and at times questionable practices by street-level bureaucrats. These practices indicate, among others, that varying levels of ‘deservingness’ of residence in Belgium can be observed within the category of mobile EU workers. Furthermore, increased digitalization and the use of intermediaries in the registration procedure facilitate and reinforce differential treatments among EU citizens and their family members.

Expulsion of EU Citizens from Another EU Member State in the Recent Case Law of the CJEU

Expulsion of EU Citizens from Another EU Member State in the Recent Case Law of the CJEU

The Magnitude of GDPR To Malaysia

The European Union (“EU”) General Data Protection Regulation (“GDPR”) governs any individuals or companies that stores or processes personal information about EU citizens within EU states even if it does not involve a business presence within the EU. Malaysian businesses need to comply with the GDPR as failure to comply will cause disruption or discontinuance of business. This paper aims to understand and evaluate the scope of the GDPR and its effect on personal data protection in Malaysia. It employs a doctrinal qualitative approach by examining the GDPR and the Malaysia Personal Data Protection Act 2010. This paper suggests that the GDPR provides a more comprehensive law with its holistic principles and rights which may provide lessons for Malaysia in protecting personal data as the area covered by the GDPR is broader specifically the non-commercial transactions, its wider range of rights and the extraterritorial applicability.

Features of the functioning of duty free and tax free areas in Ukraine and the European Union

Introduction. In the current conditions of the development of foreign economic relations in Ukraine, the activity of duty-free shops is of particular importance. However, at the moment, the peculiarities of the activity of duty-free shops are practically not covered in the regulatory acts of Ukraine. The purpose of the paper is to investigate the activity of duty free and tax free in Ukraine, to identify problematic aspects and to propose specific directions for solving the problem. Results. The special status of duty-free shops is not directly established either by the Treaties on the EU or the Treaty on the Functioning of the EU, nor by the consolidated Customs Code of the EU member states. In EU duty-free shops, the "tax-free" system operates, which differs precisely in that the goods are not exempt from VAT for EU citizens, but at the same time, non-EU citizens are provided with the possibility of receiving a refund of the value of the added tax the value for which the customs declaration is filled out. Such a system is connected with the fact that the EU actually has no borders. Ukraine is the only European country where there is no tax-free option for tourists. Conclusion. According to the results of the research, it is worth emphasizing that it is necessary to introduce automatic and transparent VAT refund procedures, as in the EU countries, to introduce new provisions to the Tax Code of Ukraine, which will provide for and describe in detail the features of VAT calculation when supplying goods to duty-free shops trade, it is also important to get rid of smuggling. It is necessary to conduct negotiations to improve the existing free trade agreements between Ukraine and the EU, including to settle the issue of the rules of origin of goods.

Managing complexity: the EU’s contribution to artificial intelligence governance

With digital ecosystems being questioned around the world, this paper examines the EU’s role in and contribution to the emerging concept of artificial intelligence (AI) governance. Seen by the EU as the key ingredient for innovation, the adoption of AI systems has altered our understanding of governance. Framing AI as an autonomous digital technology embedded in social structures, this paper argues that EU citizens' trust in AI can be increased if the innovation it entails is grounded in a fundamental rights-based approach. This is assessed based on the work of the High-Level Expert Group on AI (which has developed a framework for trustworthy AI) and the European Commission’s recently approved proposal for an Artificial Intelligence Act (taking a risk-based approach).

The future of British English in the European Union

In the three years and seven months between the referendum on 23 June 2016 and 31 January 2020, when the UK officially left the European Union, there was much speculation over what status English would have in the EU after the withdrawal of the UK. It is now apparent that English has continued to flourish. This is supported by statistics for Member States which chart the extent to which English is a school subject. Well over 95% of the children in the EU are taught English as a mandatory subject. Official EU figures also show that 38% of the population is proficient in English as a second language, three times more than both French and German (Special Eurobarometer 386: Europeans and their Languages, 2012). Moreover, although some, such as Danuta Hübner, EMP, wanted to question whether or not English could maintain its status as an official language in the EU, it is now apparent that it will not be possible to remove English in this respect (with changes requiring a unanimous vote in the Council, which Ireland has said it will not support [European Commission, 2016]), (The Guardian 27 December 2019). English has also retained its position as one of the three ‘procedural’ or ‘working languages’ alongside French and German. This has taken place despite the fact that without the UK, no Member State has English as its official EU language, and only approximately one percent of EU citizens have English as a mother tongue.

The Politics of Free Movement of People in the United Kingdom: Beyond Securitization and De‐securitization?

AbstractIn the decade after 2007 eurosceptic actors in the UK successfully deployed securitizing narratives to portray the free movement of people (FMoP) and EU citizens as a threat to the ‘ontological security’ of national citizens. The ensuing exclusionary policies (up to and beyond the end of FMoP) were normatively problematic, particularly given the absence of evidence in support of those narratives. However, the paper argues that a response aimed at de‐securitizing the issue—in this case, a return to the status‐quo‐ante – is not without its own normative problems. Indeed, the permissive pre‐2007 New Labour government's approach to FMoP was not inclusive of all EU citizens. In valorizing EU citizens as ‘independent post‐national entrepreneurs’, the marginalization of economically vulnerable EU citizens, particularly via tough welfare conditionality, was legitimated. The paper concludes by reflecting on the theoretical and political implications of the argument.

Living with COVID-19: Opportunities for the Usual Socio-Political Life in an Unusual Situation

The COVID-19 pandemic stressed national and international systems and relations and demonstrated the vulnerability of modern societies. The governments were forced to implement restrictive measures in order to protect public health. The most challenging aspect was balancing between public health protection and the functioning of the economy. As this wasn’t easy to reach, some of the governments faced challenges in communicating with the society, resulting in protests. Under these brand-new challenges, the protests only made the task of the governments harder and threatened to harm the fragile political stability. Thus, the aim of the current study is to identify the problems related to the communication between the society and the government and to identify the possible solutions for ensuring the dialogue in such situations. The study focuses on EU citizens and their attitudes toward government measures related to the pandemic in 2020 and 2021. Our materials and methods include review of scientific literature on the topics under considerations. We also performed a secondary processing of quantitative data from Eurobarometer using IBM SPSS v. 26. The results show that the measures limiting civil liberties lead to social tension even if the governments adapt their approach and search for new opportunities. This leads to the conclusion that in order to ensure the normal functioning of the social systems the governments should find ways to include the stakeholders in the decision-making. The latter is possible through digital tools and by developing a system to be implemented in times of crises even if the crisis is not caused by pandemics.

Brexit and precarity: Polish female workers in the UK as second‐class citizens?

AbstractImmigration was a decisive factor in pre‐Brexit‐vote debates and it remains one of the most divisive topics globally; therefore, it is worthy of attention. Whilst the British people had an opportunity to have their say on Brexit, EU migrant workers have not. This article gives them a voice as it is based on original data from 40 qualitative interviews with female EU citizens to the UK, conducted before and after the Brexit‐vote. This article further develops the notion of precarity in relation to EU migrants to the UK in light of Brexit and adds to debates on gender in migration. This paper provides wider policy implications for the British and other EU countries' authorities as it engages with debates on Brexit from the point of view of the UK labour force as voices of economic women migrants from Poland are presented.

W poszukiwaniu modelu kontroli granicznej cudzoziemców w ruchu lotniczym – kazus Shamindera Puriego

The aim of this article is to present the specific characteristics of air traffic and of manual search of a person and their belongings in a situation where restriction of travelers’ fundamental rights is permitted. The study asks a research question whether the EU law ensures effective protection of rights of migrant persons in the border crossing process in air traffic. Given its specific nature, air traffic requires regulation through the introduction of detailed security clauses. Thus, a special balance between having to ensure security and guarantees of respect for passengers’ basic freedoms must be safeguarded. A discussion presented in this article is largely based on an analysis of the case of Shaminder Puri, a Sikh and an EU citizen at the time of his travel. During border control at the Okęcie Airport he was asked to take off his turban, which he saw as an insult and as a consequence sued the State Treasury. Following that, the article asks a question whether by relying on arguments from courts we may develop a model of procedure for protection and possible limitation of fundamental rights towards travellers who cross borders in air traffic. A discussion presented in this article is largely based on an analysis of the case of Shaminder Puri, a Sikh and an EU citizen at the time of his travel. During border control at the Okęcie Airport he was asked to take off his turban, which he saw as an insult and as a consequence sued the State Treasury. Following that, the article asks a question whether by relying on arguments from courts we may develop a model of procedure for protection and possible limitation of fundamental rights towards travelers who cross borders in air traffic.

Data risks and security in the financial sector: Adapting to a new environment

Huge increases in data generation and storage volumes in recent years, coupled with technological innovations, are changing the nature of data risks in the financial sector. Several factors determine the nature of data risks: (a) the way technology is used; (b) the profile of financial sector entities and their interconnections; (c) the cyberthreat landscape; and (d) awareness and practices among legitimate users of data. How these factors are evolving in an increasingly complex digital environment is described. To manage the changing data risk profile, the EU regulatory framework is adapting. Key regulatory developments in the financial sector include the Digital Operational Resilience Act (DORA) proposal and the recent advice from the European Supervisory Authorities in relation to digital finance. More broadly, the Digital Services Act and the Digital Markets Act aim to create a safer digital space for EU citizens.

Avrupa’da Bir Göçmen Entegrasyonu Politikası Ayrımcılıkla Mücadele

The aim of the study is to perform a comparative analysis of the increasing discrimination of immigrants in connection with the migration movements occurring around the world, through selected European countries. The Migrant Integration Policy Index/The Migrant Integration Policy Index (MIPEX) classification table was taken as a basis in the selection of the target countries, and the relevant data were supported by the studies of the European Statistical Office (EUROSTAT).
 
 The study is based on document analysis, which is a qualitative research method. In addition to the studies on the fight against discrimination, related studies of respected individuals, institutions and organizations are also included. Will contribute to improving the quality of life of immigrants and the implementation processes of public policies on immigration in the increasing migration climate.
 
 As a result of the research, it was concluded that the rankings of 4 different countries (Sweden, France, Spain, Switzerland) selected from different categories between MIPEX data and application area changed disproportionately. According to the results obtained, it has been understood that the standards applied to EU citizens in the relevant 4 countries are not applied to immigrant individuals. It has been concluded that immigrant individuals experience social and economic problems, especially social exclusion, in countries.

Transforming Points of Single Contact Data into Linked Data

Open data portals contain valuable information for citizens and business. However, searching for information can prove to be tiresome even in portals tackling domains similar information. A typical case is the information residing in the European Commission’s portals supported by Member States aiming to facilitate service provision activities for EU citizens and businesses. The current work followed the FAIR principles (Findability, Accessibility, Interoperability, and Reuse of digital assets) as well as the GO-FAIR principles and tried to transform raw data into fair data. The innovative part of this work is the mapping of information residing in various governmental portals (Points of Single Contacts) by transforming information appearing in them in RDF format (i.e., as Linked data), in order to make them easily accessible, exchangeable, interoperable and publishable as linked open data. Mapping was performed using the semantic model of a single portal, i.e., the enriched Greek e-GIF ontology and by retrieving and analyzing raw, i.e., non-FAIR data, by defining the semantic model and by making data linkable. The Data mapping process proved to require a significant manual effort and revealed that data value remains unexplored due to poor data representation. It also highlighted the need for appropriately designing and implementing horizontal actions addressing an important number of recipients in an interoperable way.

Gender and Public Perception of Disasters: A Multiple Hazards Exploratory Study of EU Citizens

Aim: To explore gender influence on individual risk perception of multiple hazards and personal attitudes towards disaster preparedness across EU citizens. Method: An online survey was distributed to 2485 participants from Spain, France, Poland, Sweden and Italy. The survey was divided into two parts. The first part examined perceived likelihood (L), perceived personal impact (I) and perceived self-efficacy (E) towards disasters due to extreme weather conditions (flood, landslide and storm), fire, earthquake, hazardous materials accidents, and terrorist attacks. The overall risk rating for each specific hazard was measured through the following equation R = (L × I)/E and the resulting scores were brought into the range between 0 and 1. The second part explored people’s reactions to the Pros and Cons of preparedness to compute the overall attitudes of respondents towards preparation (expressed as a ratio between −1 and 1). Results: Although we found gender variations on concerns expressed as the likelihood of the occurrence, personal consequences and self-efficacy, the overall risks were judged significantly higher by females in all hazards (p < 0.01). We also found that, in general, most respondents (both males and females) were in favour of preparedness. More importantly, despite the gender differences in risk perception, there were no significant differences in the attitudes towards preparedness. We found weak correlations between risks perceived and attitudes towards preparedness (rho < 0.20). The intersectional analysis showed that young and adult females perceived higher risks than their gender counterparts at the same age. There were also gender differences in preparedness, i.e., females in higher age ranges are more motivated for preparedness than men in lower age ranges. We also found that risk perception for all hazards in females was significantly higher than in males at the same education level. We found no significant differences between sub-groups in the pros and cons of getting ready for disasters. However, females at a higher level of education have more positive attitudes towards preparedness. Conclusions: This study suggests that gender along with other intersecting factors (e.g., age and education) still shape differences in risk perception and attitudes towards disasters across the EU population. Overall, the presented results policy actions focus on promoting specific DRR policies and practices (bottom-up participatory and learning processes) through interventions oriented to specific target groups from a gender perspective.

Social model or neoliberal champion? Economic visions of the European demos among EU citizens

AbstractTheories of economic nationalism have shown that identities can be constructed around various economic discourses. Yet, much of the literature focuses on official discourses while empirical tests on the citizen level are short in supply. The debate about the European demos exemplifies this shortcoming as EU institutions construct two competing visions of a European identity around economic issues. The European economy is depicted as a neoliberal competitor or as an economic space characterised by a social model. This paper investigates which of these two official visions EU citizens subscribe to. Based on 18 focus group interviews in France, Germany and Poland, I argue that citizens only share a conception of a European social model while a marriage of neoliberalism and nationalism can be detected for national economies. These findings highlight the importance of studying everyday nationhood, as not all official visions can be expected to resonate with citizens. Studies of discursive identity formation cannot only focus on official discourse, but should be flanked by investigations on the citizen level.

EU Citizen support for climate-friendly agriculture (Farm) and dietary options (Fork) across the left-right political spectrum

ABSTRACT This paper aims to improve understanding of how EU citizens’ left-right political positions and ideological polarization on climate change affect their views on both agriculture and diet in the context of climate change policy. It uses the methods of survey research and quantitative analyses of the data (principal components and regression analysis). The work combines the Farm- and Fork-related branches of Eurobarometer 93.2 (2020) and focuses on citizens’ responses to a more climate-friendly agriculture and their ideas about ‘eating a healthy and sustainable diet’. The analysis revealed different degrees of citizen support for a more climate-friendly agriculture and climate-friendly dietary options (including meat reduction). Citizens’ left-right political position correlated negatively with support for a more climate-friendly agriculture and support for climate-friendly dietary options, but only in the Northwestern European countries. In these countries, the expected positive correlations between level of education and pro-environmental variables were found, but these correlations were not observed among the right-leaning participants. However, the positive correlation between support for a more climate-friendly agriculture and support for climate-friendly dietary options was less strongly affected by left-right political positions. Hence, public opinion is moving in the direction of EU climate policy over time; however, citizens did not fully acknowledge the priority of meat reduction in this context.

European regional inequalities in citizens’ digital interaction with government

PurposeThe purpose of this research is to study what factors influence European citizens in their interaction with government in the EU regions. It analyses the differences across European regions, taking account of each region’s degree of economic development and incorporating different spatially tailored approaches into the analysis.Design/methodology/approachA logistic regression analysis was used to establish whether the profiles of e-Government users differ according to the development tier they live in and other explanatory variables: socio-demographic, digital skills and type of internet connection.FindingsThis research identifies regional inequalities in EU citizens’ digital behaviour with public administration. This statistical study of European regions allows to better apprehend the profile of the EU’s e-citizens and offers conclusions to explain citizens’ behaviour, highlighting the influence of several variables.Originality/valueGiven the lack of pan-European e-government studies at a regional level, this article provides a comparative analysis for the European Union and gives insights into the behaviour of European e-citizens, highlighting the presence of digital inequalities in Europe depending on the region where citizens reside.

Automatic Detection of Sensitive Data Using Transformer- Based Classifiers

The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) has allowed EU citizens and residents to have more control over their personal data, simplifying the regulatory environment affecting international business and unifying and homogenising privacy legislation within the EU. This regulation affects all companies that process data of European residents regardless of the place in which they are processed and their registered office, providing for a strict discipline of data protection. These companies must comply with the GDPR and be aware of the content of the data they manage; this is especially important if they are holding sensitive data, that is, any information regarding racial or ethnic origin, political opinions, religious or philosophical beliefs, trade union membership, data relating to the sexual life or sexual orientation of the person, as well as data on physical and mental health. These classes of data are hardly structured, and most frequently they appear within a document such as an email message, a review or a post. It is extremely difficult to know if a company is in possession of sensitive data at the risk of not protecting them properly. The goal of the study described in this paper is to use Machine Learning, in particular the Transformer deep-learning model, to develop classifiers capable of detecting documents that are likely to include sensitive data. Additionally, we want the classifiers to recognize the particular type of sensitive topic with which they deal, in order for a company to have a better knowledge of the data they own. We expect to make the model described in this paper available as a web service, customized to private data of possible customers, or even in a free-to-use version based on the freely available data set we have built to train the classifiers.

Healthcare in Malta

Malta is an island state located in the Mediterranean Sea and a former British colony. Malta gained independence only in 1964, and 10 years later received the status of a parliamentary republic. The population of Malta is a little over 440 thousand people, and the country has the status of the most sparsely populated EU member state. Every fifth Maltese living on the island is an emigrant; the emigration of pensioners from the UK is especially popular here. Life expectancy for men in Malta is 79.6 years, for women 84.3 years. The state guarantees the provision of medical care for all segments of the population. The annual expenditure on health needs exceeds 10%; the financing of the medical sector is carried out through taxes and weekly insurance premiums, which are paid by both employers and employees themselves. To obtain medical ser vices, one can apply to both public and private healthcare institutions. In order to receive medical care foreigners who are not EU citizens have to purchase a private health insurance policy. Malta is a popular destination for medical tourism, as the quality of provided medical services meets European standards, while prices are about a third lower than in European countries.

Primary education stakeholders’ views on the European Union during the Greek economic crisis

The paper presents Greek primary education stakeholders’ views regarding their quality of life and EU-related issues before and during the euro crisis. The study took place in 2016, and the population was primary education teachers and parents of Eastern Macedonia and Thrace region. Respondents answered sets of questions for two different years: 2009, before austerity measures were applied, and 2016, during the crisis. Responses denote dissatisfaction with their quality of life and the EU in 2016. The findings show significant shifts of views between 2009 and 2016 regarding the institution of the EU, the euro, the relationship of Greece with the EU and European citizenship. 2016 statements reveal increased euroscepticism in teachers and parents’ views and a large proportion of undecided respondents. However, it seems that more respondents adopt a pro-European attitude regarding the common future of Greece and the EU in 2016. All in all, findings show that, in 2016, respondents are divided into pro-European and eurosceptic, which denotes diffuse attitudes towards the European construct and weak identification with European citizenship. Change during crisis can serve as an opportunity for social innovations and education initiatives that will restore trust on the institution of the EU.