Forest Aboveground Biomass Estimation Research Articles

Estimation of Aboveground Biomass for Different Forest Types Using Data from Sentinel-1, Sentinel-2, ALOS PALSAR-2, and GEDI

Forest aboveground biomass (AGB) is integral to the global carbon cycle and climate change study. Local and regional AGB mapping is crucial for understanding global carbon stock dynamics. NASA’s global ecosystem dynamics investigation (GEDI) and combination of multi-source optical and synthetic aperture radar (SAR) datasets have great potential for local and regional AGB estimation and mapping. In this study, GEDI L4A AGB data and ground sample plots worked as true AGB values to explore their difference for estimating forest AGB using Sentinel-1 (S1), Sentinel-2 (S2), and ALOS PALSAR-2 (PALSAR) data, individually and in their different combinations. The effects of forest types and different true AGB values for validation were investigated in this study, as well. The combination of S1 and S2 performed best in forest AGB estimation with R2 ranging from 0.79 to 0.84 and RMSE ranging from 7.97 to 29.42 Mg/ha, with the ground sample plots used as ground truth data. While for GEDI L4A AGB product working as reference, R2 values range from 0.36 to 0.47 and RMSE values range from 31.41 to 37.50 Mg/ha. The difference between using GEDI L4A and ground sample plot as reference shows obvious dependence on forest types. In summary, optical dataset and its combination with SAR performed better in forest AGB estimation when the average AGB is less than 150 Mg/ha. The AGB predictions from GEDI L4A AGB product used as reference underperformed across the different forest types and study sites. However, GEDI can work as ground truth data source for forest AGB estimation in a certain level of estimation accuracy.

Deep point cloud regression for above-ground forest biomass estimation from airborne LiDAR

Quantifying forest biomass stocks and their dynamics is important for implementing effective climate change mitigation measures by aiding local forest management, studying processes driving af-, re-, and deforestation, and improving the accuracy of carbon accounting. Owing to the 3-dimensional nature of forest structure, remote sensing using airborne LiDAR can be used to perform these measurements of vegetation structure at large scale. Harnessing the full dimensionality of the data, we present deep learning systems predicting wood volume and above ground biomass (AGB) directly from the full LiDAR point cloud and compare results to state-of-the-art approaches operating on basic statistics of the point clouds. For this purpose, we devise different neural network architectures for point cloud regression and evaluate them on remote sensing data of areas for which AGB estimates have been obtained from field measurements in the Danish national forest inventory. Our adaptation of Minkowski convolutional neural networks for regression give the best results. The deep neural networks produce significantly more accurate wood volume, AGB, and carbon stock estimates compared to state-of-the-art approaches. In contrast to other methods, the proposed deep learning approach does not require a digital terrain model and is robust to artifacts along the boundaries of the evaluated areas, which we demonstrate for the case where trees protrude into the area from the outside. We expect this finding to have a strong impact on LiDAR-based analyses of biomass dynamics.

Collaborative Estimation of Aboveground Forest Biomass Using P-Band and X-Band Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar Based on Feature Optimization

Collaborative Estimation of Aboveground Forest Biomass Using P-Band and X-Band Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar Based on Feature Optimization

A regional-level spatiotemporal perspective of land use and land cover change impact on forest aboveground biomass in three gorges reservoir region, China

This study used multi-platform remote sensing datasets to assess the impacts of land use and land cover (LULC) change on forest biomass density across the Three Gorges Reservoir (TGR) region along the Yangtze River. This study maps land use and land cover (LULC) change and forest aboveground biomass estimation (AGB) using Sentinel-2A and GEDI-L4B data based on observations between 2019 and 2022. The data analysis results of monitoring revealed a strong association frequency between land-use change and forest land cover since the significant relationship with forest aboveground biomass density has also been explored. The total deforestation decreased significantly in 2022. The accuracy assessment results show a classification accuracy of between 90.4% and 94.1%, with a kappa coefficient of 82.4%–92.1%. For the TGR region forest, the minimum to maximum mean above-ground biomass values are from 15.81 to 373.66 Mgha-1, respectively. Moreover, the fitting performance of the statistical analysis of aboveground biomass density of forest mean for the forest was quite decent with training (R 2: 0.92, RMSE: 12.30 Mg/ha) and testing (R 2: 0.79, RMSE: 18.07 Mg/ha) datasets. The results highlight LULC change impacts, particularly forest land class over forest AGB stands, and the effectiveness of the GEDI-L4B product in regional biomass estimation in the TGR region.

Improving forest above-ground biomass estimation using genetic-based feature selection from Sentinel-1 and Sentinel-2 data (case study of the Noor forest area in Iran)

Biomass holds great importance in the environment, as it not only allows us to measure the carbon stored in forests but also facilitates the assessment of biodiversity and the evaluation of ecological integrity within these crucial ecosystems. In this study, we employed a Genetic Algorithm (GA) to estimate forest Above-Ground Biomass (AGB) by selecting the most applicable features from both Sentinel-2 optical and Sentinel-1 Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) images in the Noor forest. The study area was divided into four distinct regions (north, near north, middle, and south), and each region was documented with 100 sample plots through fieldwork to enable comprehensive analysis. In our workflow, Sentinel-2-derived features (i.e., spectral bands, vegetation indices (VIs), soil indices (SIs), and water indices (WIs), along with Sentinel-1 SAR features were initially extracted. Subsequently, GA was employed to select the most optimal features among them within both Random Forest (RF) and Multiple Linear Regression (MLR) models, leading to enhanced accuracy in the forest AGB estimation process. The experimental results demonstrated that the RF model outperformed the MLR model in estimating forest AGB. Furthermore, incorporating GA-based feature selection substantially improved the accuracy of both models, resulting in more dependable AGB estimations. The selected features from the combined Sentinel-1 and Sentinel-2 data also provided the best AGB estimation, surpassing the individual use of each dataset. The selected features from Sentinel-2 particularly played a more substantial role in achieving this overall enhanced performance in AGB estimation. The AGB estimates based on GA-RF were more accurate in all cases, with an average coefficient of determination (R2) of 0.5 and average RMSE of 13.17 Mg ha−1, while the MLR-based estimates were less accurate, with an average R2 value lower than 0.3 and average RMSE higher than 16 Mg ha−1. Furthermore, the GA-RF model selected a wider variety of features including spectral bands, indices, and SAR features compared to GA-MLR, resulting in accurate AGB estimation in the Noor forest.

Forest Aboveground Biomass Estimation in Subtropical Mountain Areas Based on Improved Water Cloud Model and PolSAR Decomposition Using L-Band PolSAR Data

Forest aboveground biomass (AGB) retrieval using synthetic aperture radar (SAR) backscatter has received extensive attention. The water cloud model (WCM), because of its simplicity and physical significance, has been one of the most commonly used models for estimating forest AGB using SAR backscatter. Nevertheless, forest AGB estimation using the WCM is usually based on simplified assumptions and empirical fitting, leading to results that tend to overestimate or underestimate. Moreover, the physical connection between the model and the polarimetric synthetic aperture radar (PolSAR) is not established, which leads to the limitation of the inversion scale. In this paper, based on the fully polarimetric SAR data from the Advanced Land Observing Satellite-2 (ALOS-2) Phased Array-type L-band Synthetic Aperture Radar (PALSAR-2), the relative contributions of the three major scattering mechanisms were first analyzed in a hilly area of southern China. On this basis, the traditional WCM was extended by considering the secondary scattering mechanism. Then, to establish the direct relationship between the vegetation scattering mechanism and forest AGB, a new relationship equation between the PolSAR decomposition model and the improved water cloud model (I-WCM) was constructed without the help of external data. Finally, a nonlinear iterative method was used to estimate the forest AGB. The results show that volume scattering is the dominant mechanism, accounting for more than 60%. Double-bounce scattering accounts for the smallest fraction, but still about 10%, which means that the contribution of the double-bounce scattering component is not negligible in forested areas because of the strong penetration capability of the long-wave SAR. The modified method provides a correlation coefficient R2 of 0.665 and a root mean square error (RMSE) of 21.902, which is an improvement of 36.42% compared to the traditional fitting method. Moreover, it enables the extraction of forest parameters at the pix scale using PolSAR data without the need for low-resolution external data and is thus helpful for high-resolution mapping of forest AGB.

Novel Features of Canopy Height Distribution for Aboveground Biomass Estimation Using Machine Learning: A Case Study in Natural Secondary Forests

Identifying important factors (e.g., features and prediction models) for forest aboveground biomass (AGB) estimation can provide a vital reference for accurate AGB estimation. This study proposed a novel feature of the canopy height distribution (CHD), a function of canopy height, that is useful for describing canopy structure for AGB estimation of natural secondary forests (NSFs) by fitting a bimodal Gaussian function. Three machine learning models (Support Vector Regression (SVR), Random Forest (RF), and eXtreme Gradient Boosting (Xgboost)) and three deep learning models (One-dimensional Convolutional Neural Network (1D-CNN4), 1D Visual Geometry Group Network (1D-VGG16), and 1D Residual Network (1D-Resnet34)) were applied. A completely randomized design was utilized to investigate the effects of four feature sets (original CHD features, original LiDAR features, the proposed CHD features fitted by the bimodal Gaussian function, and the LiDAR features selected by the recursive feature elimination algorithm) and models on estimating the AGB of NSFs. Results revealed that the models were the most important factor for AGB estimation, followed by the features. The fitted CHD features significantly outperformed the other three feature sets in most cases. When employing the fitted CHD features, the 1D-Renset34 model demonstrates optimal performance (R2 = 0.80, RMSE = 9.58 Mg/ha, rRMSE = 0.09), surpassing not only other deep learning models (e.g.,1D-VGG16: R2 = 0.65, RMSE = 18.55 Mg/ha, rRMSE = 0.17) but also the best machine learning model (RF: R2 = 0.50, RMSE = 19.42 Mg/ha, rRMSE = 0.16). This study highlights the significant role of the new CHD features fitting a bimodal Gaussian function and the effects between the models and the CHD features, which provide the sound foundations for effective estimation of AGB in NSFs.

Comparing Algorithms for Estimation of Aboveground Biomass in Pinus yunnanensis

Comparing algorithms are crucial for enhancing the accuracy of remote sensing estimations of forest biomass in regions with high heterogeneity. Herein, Sentinel 2A, Sentinel 1A, Landsat 8 OLI, and Digital Elevation Model (DEM) were selected as data sources. A total of 12 algorithms, including 7 types of learners, were utilized for estimating the aboveground biomass (AGB) of Pinus yunnanensis forest. The results showed that: (1) The optimal algorithm (Extreme Gradient Boosting, XGBoost) was selected as the meta-model (referred to as XGBoost-stacking) of the stacking ensemble algorithm, which integrated 11 other algorithms. The R2 value was improved by 0.12 up to 0.61, and RMSE was decreased by 4.53 Mg/ha down to 39.34 Mg/ha compared to the XGBoost. All algorithms consistently showed severe underestimation of AGB in the Pinus yunnanensis forest of Yunnan Province when AGB exceeded 100 Mg/ha. (2) XGBoost-Stacking, XGBoost, BRNN (Bayesian Regularized Neural Network), RF (Random Forest), and QRF (Quantile Random Forest) have good sensitivity to forest AGB. QRNN (Quantile Regression Neural Network), GP (Gaussian Process), and EN (Elastic Network) have more outlier data and their robustness was poor. SVM-RBF (Radial Basis Function Kernel Support Vector Machine), k-NN (K Nearest Neighbors), and SGB (Stochastic Gradient Boosting) algorithms have good robustness, but their sensitivity was poor, and QRF algorithms and BRNN algorithm can estimate low values with higher accuracy. In conclusion, the XGBoost-stacking, XGBoost, and BRNN algorithms have shown promising application prospects in remote sensing estimation of forest biomass. This study could provide a reference for selecting the suitable algorithm for forest AGB estimation.

Improving the Potential of Coniferous Forest Aboveground Biomass Estimation by Integrating C- and L-Band SAR Data with Feature Selection and Non-Parametric Model

Forests play a significant role in terrestrial ecosystems by sequestering carbon, and forest biomass is a crucial indicator of carbon storage potential. However, the single-frequency SAR estimation of forest biomass often leads to saturation issues. This research aims to improve the potential for estimating forest aboveground biomass (AGB) by feature selection based on a scattering mechanism and sensitivity analysis and utilizing a non-parametric model that combines the advantage of dual-frequency SAR data. By employing GF-3 and ALOS-2 data, this study explores the scattering mechanism within a coniferous forest by using results of target decomposition and the pixel statistics method. By selecting an appropriate feature (backscatter coefficients and polarization parameters) and using stepwise regression models and a non-parametric model (the random forest adaptive genetic algorithm (RF-AGA)), the results revealed that the RF-AGA model with feature selection exhibited excellent AGB estimation performance without obvious saturation (RMSE = 10.42 t/ha, R2 = 0.93, leave-one-out cross validation). The σHV, σVH, Pauli three-component decomposition, Yamaguchi three-component decomposition, and VanZyl3 component decomposition of thee C-band and σHV, σVH,σHH, Yamaguchi three-component decomposition, and VanZyl3 component decomposition of the L-band are suited for estimating the AGB of coniferous forests. Volume scattering was the dominant mechanism, followed by surface scattering, while double-bounce scattering had the smallest proportion. This study highlights the potential of investigating scattering mechanisms, sensitivity factors, and parameter selection in the C- and L-band SAR data for improved forest AGB estimation.

Estimation of tropical forest aboveground biomass in Nepal using multiple remotely sensed data and deep learning

ABSTRACT This study assessed the prediction accuracy of the forest aboveground biomass (AGB) model using remotely sensed data sources (i.e. airborne laser scanning (ALS), RapidEye, Landsat), and the combination of ALS with RapidEye/Landsat using parametric weighted least squares (WLS) regression. We also analysed the AGB model using random forests, extremely randomized trees, and deep learning stacked autoencoder (SAE) network from nonparametric statistics to compare the performance with WLS regression. We also compared the widths of the 95% confidence intervals for estimates of the mean AGB per unit area using the model-based estimator. The study site in the Terai Arc Landscape, Nepal, comprised 14 protected areas extending from the southern part of Nepal to India and encompassed mosaics of continuous dense forest and tall grassland. The ALS data provided the largest prediction accuracy (0.30–0.35 relative root mean squared error (rRMSE)), whereas RapidEye and Landsat had smaller prediction accuracies (0.48‒0.54 and 0.47‒0.55 rRMSE, respectively) for the estimation of AGB. The combined use of ALS and RapidEye predictors in the AGB model reduced the rRMSE and narrowed the confidence interval compared with ALS alone, but the improvements were minor. The SAE prediction technique provided the largest prediction accuracy, with inputs of combined ALS and RapidEye predictors that yielded an R2 of 0.80, an rRMSE of 0.30, and a confidence interval of 176‒184 compared to other tested prediction techniques. The SAE prediction technique can become more powerful than other tested prediction techniques if properly adjusted and tuned for accurate forest AGB mapping applications. To our knowledge, this is the first study assessing the performance of the SAE in AGB modelling with a range of hyper-parameter values.

Modelling aboveground biomass of a multistage managed forest through synergistic use of Landsat-OLI, ALOS-2 L-band SAR and GEDI metrics

To better understand forest carbon budgets and design forest-based climate change mitigation solutions, reliable biomass estimation is critical. Integrating multi-sensor remote sensing data can improve forest monitoring and evaluation. This study adopted a one-hectare plot size sampling design to improve the integration of GEDI footprints with in-situ, optical, and SAR data for the estimation of forest above-ground biomass (AGB). The study was carried out for a managed tropical forest in the Himalayan foothills of India. The space-borne GEDI retrieved the canopy height of the study area with an RMSE of 3.36 m and Adj. R2 of 0.70. Extrapolating GEDI footprint heights (RH95) with Landsat 8 indices using Random Forest (RF) yielded a spatial canopy height of the study area with an R2 of 0.97 and RMSE of 2.32 m. Using the GEDI canopy height, foliage density, and plant area index, the AGB at GEDI footprints level was estimated using RF, with an R2 of 0.91 and an RMSE of 20.10 Mg ha−1. The spatial AGB model that only considered ALOS-2 SAR variables had an R2 of 0.61 and an RMSE of 18.27 Mg ha−1, whereas the RF model that considered both SAR variables and canopy height had a superior R2 of 0.77 and a lower RMSE of 13.86 Mg ha−1. The addition of canopy height data reduced the RMSE of the AGB model by 4.41 Mg ha−1 and also predicted a higher range of AGB. The study demonstrates the effectiveness of combining GEDI data with other sensors (optical and SAR data) to provide precise AGB of multistage managed forests using a one-hectare plot size sampling design.

Estimating the Aboveground Biomass of Various Forest Types with High Heterogeneity at the Provincial Scale Based on Multi-Source Data

It is important to improve the accuracy of models estimating aboveground biomass (AGB) in large areas with complex geography and high forest heterogeneity. In this study, k-nearest neighbors (k-NN), gradient boosting machine (GBM), random forest (RF), quantile random forest (QRF), regularized random forest (RRF), and Bayesian regularization neural network (BRNN) machine learning algorithms were constructed to estimate the AGB of four forest types based on environmental factors and the variables selected by the Boruta algorithm in Yunnan Province and using integrated Landsat 8 OLI and Sentinel 2A images. The results showed that (1) DEM was the most important variable for estimating the AGB of coniferous forests, evergreen broadleaved forests, deciduous broadleaved forests, and mixed forests; while the vegetation index was the most important variable for estimating deciduous broadleaved forests, the climatic factors had a higher variable importance for estimating coniferous and mixed forests, and texture features and vegetation index had a higher variable importance for estimating evergreen broadleaved forests. (2) In terms of specific model performance for the four forest types, RRF was the best model both in estimating the AGB of coniferous forests and mixed forests; the R2 and RMSE for coniferous forests were 0.63 and 43.23 Mg ha−1, respectively, and the R2 and RMSE for mixed forests were 0.56 and 47.79 Mg ha−1, respectively. BRNN performed the best in estimating the AGB of evergreen broadleaved forests; the R2 was 0.53 and the RMSE was 68.16 Mg ha−1. QRF was the best in estimating the AGB of deciduous broadleaved forests, with R2 of 0.43 and RMSE of 45.09 Mg ha−1. (3) RRF was the best model for the four forest types according to the mean values, with R2 and RMSE of 0.503 and 52.335 Mg ha−1, respectively. In conclusion, different variables and suitable models should be considered when estimating the AGB of different forest types. This study could provide a reference for the estimation of forest AGB based on remote sensing in complex terrain areas with a high degree of forest heterogeneity.

Fine-Resolution Forest Height Estimation by Integrating ICESat-2 and Landsat 8 OLI Data with a Spatial Downscaling Method for Aboveground Biomass Quantification

Rapid and accurate estimation of forest aboveground biomass (AGB) with fine details is crucial for effective forest monitoring and management, where forest height plays a key role in AGB quantification. In this study, we propose a random forest (RF)-based down-scaling method to map forest height and biomass at a 15-m resolution by integrating Landsat 8 OLI and Ice, Cloud and Land Elevation Satellite-2 (ICESat-2) LiDAR data. ICESat-2 photon data are used to derive canopy parameters along 15-m segments, which are considered sample plots for the extrapolation of discrete forest height. Fourteen variables associated with spectral features, textual features and vegetation index are extracted from pan-sharpened Landsat 8 images. A regression function is established between these variables and ICESat-2-derived forest height to produce a 15-m continuous forest height distribution data based on the 30-m forest height product using the RF algorithm. Finally, a wall-to-wall forest AGB at 15-m spatial resolution is achieved by using an allometric model specific to the forest type and height. The Jilin Province in northeast China is taken as the study area, and the forest AGB estimation results reveal a density of 61.15 Mg/ha with a standard deviation of 89.46 Mg/ha. The R2 between our predicted forest heights and the ICESat-2-derived heights reaches 0.93. Validation results at the county scale demonstrate reasonable correspondence between the estimated AGB and reference data, with consistently high R2 value exceeding 0.65. This downscaling method provides a promising scheme to estimate spatial forest AGB with fine details and to enhance the accuracy of AGB estimation, which may facilitate carbon stock measurement and carbon cycle studies.

Tropical forest AGB estimation based on structure parameters extracted by TomoSAR

Forests play a crucial role in quantifying global carbon storage and detecting climate change in the form of aboveground biomass (AGB), which introduces an approach to study carbon cycle, ecology, and biodiversity. The monitoring and estimation of forest AGB are considered very important and of practical value. As we know, forest AGB relates with height, density and diameter at breast height, and how to relate the ecophysical parameters with remote sensing images is vital for forest AGB estimation. In this paper, we aim to explore structure parameters about forest density and height, extracted by tomographic SAR (TomoSAR) techniques, for further improving the precision of AGB estimation models. Firstly, vertical structure profiles are constructed via TomoSAR, and the structure features are extracted. Secondly, the correlation between these features and the in-situ forest maximum height, tree density, and average AGB in plot scale is analyzed. Thirdly, the 8-fold cross-validation and step-wise regression methods were utilized to construct the tropical forest AGB models. Finally, the results of these models have been presented and analyzed. Based on the analysis, it indicates that “Model 7” is the most effective model, and its performance at both plot and pixel scales indicates a high level of accuracy for predicting forest AGB. These findings suggest that the proposed method can be effectively applied to tropical forested areas and has good scalability.

Comparison of multi-source remote sensing data for estimating and mapping above-ground biomass in the West Usambara tropical montane forests

Above-ground biomass (AGB) estimation is important to better understand the carbon cycle and improve the efficiency of forest policy and management activities. AGB estimation models, using a combination of field data and remote sensing data, can largely replace traditional survey methods for measuring AGB. There are, however, critical steps for mapping AGB based on satellite data with an acceptable degree of accuracy, such as choice of remote sensing data, the proper statistical modelling method, and remote sensing predictor variables, at known field locations. This study sought to identify the optimal optical and synthetic aperture radar (SAR) remote sensing imagery from five sensors (PlanetScope, Sentinel-2, Landsat 8 OLI, ALOS-2/PALSAR-2, and Sentinel-1) to model 159 field-based AGB values from two montane forests under semiparametric (Generalized Additive Model; GAM) and non-parametric (eXtreme Gradient Boosting; XGB) approaches using information from four groups of predictor variables (spectral bands/polarizations, vegetation indices, textures, and a combination of all). The study's results showed that PlanetScope (rRMSE = 69.19%; R2 = 0.161) was the most precise optical sensor while ALOS-2/PALSAR-2 (rRMSE = 70.76; R2 = 0.165) was the most precise amongst the SAR sensors. XGB models generally resulted in those with lower prediction errors as compared to GAMs for the five sensors. Models having textures of vegetation indices and polarization bands achieved greater accuracy than models that incorporated spectral bands/polarizations and vegetation indices only. The study recommends that PlanetScope and ALOS-2/PALSAR-2 remote sensing data using the XGB-based technique is an appropriate approach for accurate local and regional estimation of tropical forest AGB particularly for complex montane forest ecosystems.

Examination of the amount of GEDI data required to characterize central Africa tropical forest aboveground biomass at REDD+ project scale in Mai Ndombe province

The Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation (GEDI) is the first spaceborne LiDAR designed to improve quantification of vegetation structure and forest aboveground biomass (AGB) including in the tropics where forest AGB inventory data are limited. GEDI is a sampling instrument on the International Space Station (ISS) and does not provide data on a regular, systematic basis. Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation and enhancement of carbon stocks (REDD+) projects require forest AGB inventories to quantify avoided carbon emissions achieved by conserving forest biomass. Although there is high confidence that GEDI can retrieve measurements that allow estimation of AGB at scale, less is known about how well its operational deployment performs for measurement of AGB to support REDD+ projects. This includes an understanding of the appropriate time period required to collect sufficient GEDI observations for reliable forest AGB assessment. This paper describes the first study to examine the amount of GEDI data needed to characterize tropical forest AGB at REDD+ project scale. In tropical Africa, the average REDD+ project size documented by the Center for International Forestry Research is equivalent to a square area of approximately 50 × 50 km (250,000 ha). Recently available good quality GEDI footprint-level AGB product data acquired over a 31 month period over Mai Ndombe province in the west of the Democratic Republic of the Congo were considered. A global 30 m percent tree cover product, updated with contemporary mapped forest cover loss, was used to map the intact forest across the province. Fifteen 50 × 50 km test sites, representing example REDD+ project areas with >80% forest cover and good quality AGB forest footprint data distributed across each site, were selected. The sites were selected from five AGB stratum defined from the GEDI data, and with three sites selected per stratum that had low, medium and high semivariogram sill values that reflect increasing within-site AGB spatial variation. The overall mean GEDI AGB (OMGA) was derived from all the good quality forest GEDI footprint AGB values acquired over the 31 months of GEDI operation at each site. The expected minimum number of GEDI orbits (norbitsp) required to characterize the OMGA to within p = ±5%, ±10%, and ±20% was derived by considering different combinations of GEDI orbits randomly selected from the 31 months of GEDI data. The expected minimum number of days (ndaysp) required to characterize the AGB over each site was derived by multiplying the site norbitsp values with a scalar coefficient of 13.03 days. The scalar coefficient was found by counting the temporal intervals between successive GEDI orbits containing good quality forest AGB data and is equivalent to the average number of days required to obtain a GEDI orbit containing good quality forest AGB data at 50 × 50 km scale. Among the 15 sites, observation periods ranging from 65 to 221 days (0.18 – 0.61 years), 143 – 534 days (0.39 – 1.46 years), and 390 – 742 days (1.07 – 2.03 years) were required to characterize the AGB to within ±20%, ±10%, and ±5% of the site OMGA, respectively. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) recommended accuracy requirement for forest AGB estimates is 10%. Thus, to meet this accuracy requirement the findings of this study indicate that at least 534 days (1.46 years) would be required for REDD+ site monitoring using GEDI in Mai Ndombe province. In other central African tropical forest localities these observations periods may be different depending on the forest AGB and spatial variation, cloud cover, ephemeral surface water presence, and GEDI AGB retrieval sensitivity to the forest conditions.

Review of Remote Sensing-Based Methods for Forest Aboveground Biomass Estimation: Progress, Challenges, and Prospects

Quantifying forest aboveground biomass (AGB) is essential for elucidating the global carbon cycle and the response of forest ecosystems to climate change. Over the past five decades, remote-sensing techniques have played a vital role in forest AGB estimation at different scales. Here, we present an overview of the progress in remote sensing-based forest AGB estimation. More in detail, we first describe the principles of remote sensing techniques in forest AGB estimation: that is, the construction and use of parameters associated with AGB (rather than the direct measurement of AGB values). Second, we review forest AGB remotely sensed data sources (including passive optical, microwave, and LiDAR) and methods (e.g., empirical, physical, mechanistic, and comprehensive models) alongside their limitations and advantages. Third, we discuss possible sources of uncertainty in resultant forest AGB estimates, including those associated with remote sensing imagery, sample plot survey data, stand structure, and statistical models. Finally, we offer forward-looking perspectives and insights on prospective research directions for remote sensing-based forest AGB estimation. Remote sensing is anticipated to play an increasingly important role in future forest AGB estimation and carbon cycle studies. Overall, this comprehensive review may (1) benefit the research communities focused on carbon cycle, remote sensing, and climate change elucidation, (2) provide a theoretical basis for the study of the carbon cycle and global climate change, (3) inform forest ecosystems and carbon management, and (4) aid in the elucidation of forest feedbacks to climate change.

Improved Object-Based Mapping of Aboveground Biomass Using Geographic Stratification with GEDI Data and Multi-Sensor Imagery

Aboveground biomass (AGB) mapping using spaceborne LiDAR data and multi-sensor images is essential for efficient carbon monitoring and climate change mitigation actions in heterogeneous forests. The optimal predictors of remote sensing-based AGB vary greatly with geographic stratification, such as topography and forest type, while the way in which geographic stratification influences the contributions of predictor variables in object-based AGB mapping is insufficiently studied. To address the improvement of mapping forest AGB by geographic stratification in heterogeneous forests, satellite multisensory data from global ecosystem dynamics investigation (GEDI) and series of advanced land observing satellite (ALOS) and Sentinel were integrated. Multi-sensor predictors for the AGB modeling of different types of forests were selected using a correlation analysis of variables calculated from topographically stratified objects. Random forests models were built with GEDI-based AGB and geographically stratified predictors to acquire wall-to-wall biomass values. It was illustrated that the mapped biomass had a similar distribution and was approximate to the sampled forest AGB. Through an accuracy comparison using independent validation samples, it was determined that the geographic stratification approach improved the accuracy by 34.79% compared to the unstratified process. Stratification of forest type further increased the mapped AGB accuracy compared to that of topography. Topographical stratification greatly influenced the predictors’ contributions to AGB mapping in mixed broadleaf–conifer and broad-leaved forests, but only slightly impacted coniferous forests. Optical variables were predominant for deciduous forests, while for evergreen forests, SAR indices outweighed the other predictors. As a pioneering estimation of forest AGB with geographic stratification using satellite multisensory data, this study offers optimal predictors and an advanced method for obtaining carbon maps in heterogeneous regional landscapes.

Estimation of forest above‐ground biomass in Guangxi, China, by integrating forest age and stack learning

AbstractWith the implementation of large‐scale ecological restoration projects, Southwest China has become one of the fastest forest growth areas in the world in terms of vegetation cover and above‐ground biomass (AGB). It is expected to be a potential area for achieving the carbon neutrality target in China. Accurate estimation of forest AGB is becoming an increasingly urgent necessity for carbon neutrality and forest management. However, due to the complex geological background, there is significant uncertainty in estimating forest AGB in the southwestern region, which generally results in underestimating carbon sinks from forest restoration. To address the issue, we propose a method by incorporating forest age information and stack learning technique to estimate forest AGB. Based on remote sensing, forest inventory and in situ forest biomass data, three fundamental methods (Multiple regression, Random forest and Support vector machine) are employed and compared to build the AGB estimation model with vegetation indices, texture feature factors and forest age. Optimal basic models are further enhanced by integration learning to improve the estimation performance and then applied to the study area Guangxi to obtain regional AGB information of different forest types. The results show that: (1) forest age plays a vital role in reducing the uncertainty of AGB estimation. By incorporating forest age information, R2 of AGB estimation is improved by 0.07–0.27 and RMSE is decreased by 16.35%–47.47% for different forest types; (2) with R2 value >0.78, random forest model outperforms support vector machine and multiple linear regression models. Compared with the single optimal model, integration model by stack learning further enhances R2 of estimation by 0.02–0.03 and decreases RMSE by 5.20%–14.89%. (3) The total forest AGB in Guangxi is 988.17 Tg and the average forest AGB level is 73.30 t/ha. Natural broadleaf forest has the highest AGB level (86.75 t/ha), followed by natural coniferous forest (81.19 t/ha), planted coniferous forest (63.23 t/ha) and planted eucalyptus forest (49.71 t/ha). AGB level in karst areas is lower than that in non‐karst areas due to soil and water constraints. The majority of plantation forests in Guangxi is in the early and middle stages of forest succession, with the rapid growth of forest AGB, and has hence significant potential as carbon sinks. This study indicates that stack learning and incorporation of forest age could significantly decrease the uncertainty of forest AGB estimation. Our study helps to provide more accurate AGB information for karst ecological project management and regional carbon neutrality assessment.

Aboveground Biomass Retrieval in Tropical and Boreal Forests Using L-Band Airborne Polarimetric Observations

Forests play a crucial part in regulating global climate change since their aboveground biomass (AGB) relates to the carbon cycle, and its changes affect the main carbon pools. At present, the most suitable available SAR data for wall-to-wall forest AGB estimation are exploiting an L-band polarimetric SAR. However, the saturation issues were reported for AGB estimation using L-band backscatter coefficients. Saturation varies depending on forest structure. Polarimetric information has the capability to identify different aspects of forest structure and therefore shows great potential for reducing saturation issues and improving estimation accuracy. In this study, 121 polarimetric decomposition observations, 10 polarimetric backscatter coefficients and their derived observations, and six texture features were extracted and applied for forest AGB estimation in a tropical forest and a boreal forest. A parametric feature optimization inversion model (Multiple linear stepwise regression, MSLR) and a nonparametric feature optimization inversion model (fast iterative procedure integrated into a K-nearest neighbor nonparameter algorithm, KNNFIFS) were used for polarimetric features optimization and forest AGB inversion. The results demonstrated the great potential of L-band polarimetric features for forest AGB estimation. KNNFIFS performed better both in tropical (R2 = 0.80, RMSE = 22.55 Mg/ha, rRMSE = 14.59%, MA%E = 12.21%) and boreal (R2 = 0.74, RMSE = 19.82 Mg/ha, rRMSE = 20.86%, MA%E = 20.19%) forests. Non-model-based polarimetric features performed better compared to features extracted by backscatter coefficients, model-based decompositions, and texture. Polarimetric observations also revealed site-dependent performances.