Establishment Of Soviet Power Research Articles

Chortkiv Deanery of the Stanislaviv Greek Catholic Eparchy in 1939-1946

The purpose of the article is an objective study of the historical development of the Chortkiv Deanery of the Stanislaviv Diocese of the Galician Metropolis of the Greek Catholic Church during the Second World War of 1939-1945 and the establishment of Soviet power in Galicia in 1945-1946, which led to the forced liquidation of the UGCC and its transformation into a “catacomb” church. Research methodology: the basic methods are microhistorical, biographical and prosopographic. The scientific novelty is that for the first time the peculiarities of the historical development of the Chortkiv Deanery of the Stanislaviv Eparchy of the UGCC during the Second World War and the “second Sovietization” of Galicia (1939-1946) are analyzed. Conclusions: The authors show the specifics of church-state relations, the mutual influence of political and ecclesiastical administrative-territorial divisions in the process of liquidation of the UGCC, and the role of individual priests in the events of this time.

Protestant Mission and Russian Orthodoxy: Certain Aspects of YMCAQ Activities in Russia in the Beginning of the 20th Century

In the article the author analyzes the activities of YMCA American Protestant organization in the territory of the Russian empire before the revolution of 1917. Missionary activities were completed with the social aspects. YMCA activities were based on the social evangelism, “New Theology” and “muscular” Christianity trends. The ideas of Christian faith accommodation to the standards of modern life and culture were brought to the Orthodox grounds and contributed to the formation of views on the basis of modernism and liberalism. American Protestants activities were strongly supported by the Provisional Government and continued until the establishment of Soviet power in the territory of Russia. In the article the author pays special attention to the transition period with epoch destruction and to YMCA role in that process, as it primarily worked with the most active social segment – the youth.

Общественные настроения и перспективы советской власти на Дальнем Востоке РСФСР в 1923–1925 гг.

The period of 1923–1925 witnessed significant efforts by the Soviet power to consolidate power in the Far East region of the RSFSR. This article examines the socio-political landscape during this pivotal time, shedding light on the challenges faced and the strategies employed to establish Soviet governance. Public sentiments in the Far East were intricately tied to the tumultuous political and economic conditions prevailing in the aftermath of the Civil War and foreign intervention. Economic devastation and stagnation exacerbated social tensions, posing formidable challenges to the consolidation of Soviet power. The prospects of Soviet authority hinged upon understanding and navigating the intricate dynamics of the local population. Factors such as the dominance of affluent rural elites, Cossack privileges, and the presence of diverse ethnic groups like Koreans and Chinese shaped the landscape of governance. Despite the adversities, the Soviet authorities achieved a notable milestone with the successful conduct of elections to the grassroots councils across the region in 1923–1924. This demonstrated a degree of acceptance and legitimacy for the new regime, marking a crucial step towards consolidation. In conclusion, the establishment of Soviet power in the Far East of the RSFSR during 1923–1925 was a complex endeavor shaped by the interplay of socio-economic conditions and local dynamics. While challenges persisted, the successful conduct of elections underscored the resilience and adaptability of the Soviet regime in navigating turbulent waters and laying the foundations for governance in the region.

Legal Regulation of Working Hours in Kyrgyzstan During the Establishment of Soviet Power (1917-1924)

This article discusses the legal regulation of working hours in Kyrgyzstan during the years of establishing Soviet power as one of the most important directions of Soviet policy in establishing better working conditions and improving the living standards of workers. It examines the first normative acts of government and administration bodies, i. e., the formation of Soviet labor legislation during the radical socio-economic transformations following the October Socialist Revolution of 1917.

Социальный портрет фронтовиков Первой мировой войны: информационные возможности

Introduction. Soviet historiography has traditionally seen the front-line soldiers as supporters of the Bolshevik Party, active participants in the establishment of Soviet power in the localities. This approach was convincingly supported by evidence from the memoirs of participants in the events. There are almost no special memories of the World War - participation in it was not a matter of pride; mainly about staying at the front was reported in connection with subsequent revolutionary events. Modern historiography considers front-line soldiers more variably, but essentially uses the same source base. Since millions have returned from the front, and thousands have left memoirs, the conclusions drawn from these sources are quite vulnerable, especially if researchers insist on their universality. Many judgments are about the unwillingness of soldiers to fight, the desire to get land at home, etc. - made not on the basis of source facts, but logical reasoning. Materials and methods. This article attempts to analyze the sources of personal origin of the frontline soldiers of one region - the Orenburg province. A complete collection of memoirs, autobiographies, etc., is reflected in the catalog published in 2021 and includes materials from the archives of the Orenburg region (state archives, museum archives) and archives of adjacent territories (Samara, Ufa, Chelyabinsk) - a total of 167 authors, as well as autobiographies from the personal files of the personnel department of the Orenburg Regional Committee of the CPSU - 240 texts. In total, these documents can be considered as a natural sample, which made it possible to create a social portrait of front-line soldiers in the southeast of the European part of the country with fixation of variants of certain aspects. The data obtained in some cases do not agree with the generally accepted judgments of the all-Russian scale. Results. The process of returning from the fronts dragged on until 1919. The thesis accepted in historiography that the peasant soldiers were in a hurry to get home in order to have time to receive land under the decree on land, does not find any support in the sources. The thesis about the mass revolutionary moods of the front-line soldiers and their readiness and desire to fight for the new government does not find support either. The vast majority of those who returned from the war sought to arrange a normal peaceful life. Those who could not find work immediately left for the Red Guard (and later the Red Army) as volunteers - service in the Red Guard was an alternative source of livelihood. Conclusion. A significant number of peasants got back to farming on land, and were drawn into the confrontation of the civil war only through the mobilization of 1919.

Последние надежды: адаптация бывшего купечества в советском обществе в 1920-е гг.

The process of adaptation of representatives of the former merchant class in Siberia in Soviet society in the 1920s is considered. The article presents various examples of adaptation of the largest representatives of the pre-revolutionary business elite, based on such a source as the case of the restoration of electoral rights, the author supplemented the factual material on the activities of some representatives of the former merchants after the establishment of Soviet power in Siberia. For the first time, an attempt was made to consider the reasons for the return of former merchants to entrepreneurship in the conditions of the NEP. The author comes to the conclusion that the first half of the 1920s was the most favorable period for the adaptation of this category of “former”.

DIARY OF GRAND DUCHESS XENIA ALEXANDROVNA IN THE WINTER OF 1917-1918

For the first time, the entire diary entries of Grand Duchess Xenia Alexandrovna from November 23 / December 6, 1917 to February 27 / March 11, 1918, made by her under house arrest in the Crimea on the estates of Ai-Todor and Dulber, are published. Since 2017 these Documents have been stored in the State Archive of the Russian Federation. Xenia Alexandrovna's notes from this period contain details of the daily life of representatives of the former imperial family during the establishment of Soviet power on the Crimean Peninsula, describe their attitude to the events taking place around them, reveal previously unknown facts and clarify the tragic pages of the post-revolutionary history of the House of Romanov.

Badania kryminalistyczne jako narzędzie w mediacji. Geneza i perspektywy rozwoju w kontekście stanu wojennego i powojennej odbudowy Ukrainy

The study explores justice, forensic examination and mediation from the time of their genesis to the present day. The article analyzes historical examples of the application of forensic examination within the mediation process from the Ancient East and Antiquity to the 20th century, as well as the processes of establishing the legitimization of forensic examination (from the end of the 19th century) and mediation (from the end of the 20th century) in Ukraine and abroad. Attention is paid to the prototypes of forensic examination in the times of Kievan Rus, the Principality of Galicia-Volhynia, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Cossack State and the entry of Ukrainian lands into the Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires, as well as the emergence of forensic examination before the First World War and during the Ukrainian Revolution and the expansion of the Bolsheviks and the establishment of Soviet power. The formation of regional offices (1923) and later institutes of scientific and forensic expertise (1925) in Kyiv, Odesa and Kharkiv is studied. The article reveals the peculiarities of the development of forensic examination within the establishment and legitimization of the mediation procedure in independent Ukraine. The provisions of the current legislation on forensic examination and mediation are analyzed. The authors substantiate the prospects of using the results of forensic expert activity for the application of mediation procedures in the settlement of disputes through negotiations between the parties using the conclusions of forensic experts. The authors identify the most promising types of forensic expertise for the mediation procedure (economic, commodity, construction, intellectual property, etc.). The authors determine the prospects for mediators to use expert opinions not only in family, labor, civil, commercial and administrative disputes, but also in criminal cases during martial law and post-war revival of Ukraine.

Karoli Gaspar University, Budapest

The border issue was very important in relations between the South Caucasian first republics, emerged in 1918. Despite disagreements regarding the Zagatala region and some other territories, there has never been an armed conflict between Baku and Tbilisi. Both Baku and Tbilisi understood perfectly well that any military conflict would be harmful for both states. Politicians from both countries really assessed the situation, and this indicates their professionalism and dignity. The issue of determining the border between Georgia and Azerbaijan has never reached the level of complicating the resolution of other issues or, moreover, aggravating the situation between the two states. It should also be taken into account that Georgia and Azerbaijan had much more common interests than controversial issues. One of the most important issues was the export of Baku oil, which passed through the Baku-Batumi oil pipeline and required coordinated actions of both states. One of the ways for transportation of the Baku oil was via the Baku-Batumi oil pipeline, and the other was by rail. Oil transported through the pipeline was mainly destined for Europe. For its needs, Georgia transported oil and various types of petroleum products mainly by rail. The treaties on transit, telegraph communications, and postal communications were signed between neighboring Georgia and Azerbaijan. The conclusions of these treaties were of great political and economic importance for both states. The agreement on railway communication, concluded on March 8, 1919, was of great significance. In order to protect the borders and independence of their states, the Georgian-Azerbaijani mutual defense treaty was signed on June 16, 1919 in Tbilisi. The establishment of Soviet power in Azerbaijan strained relations between Baku and Tbilisi. Soviet Russia used Soviet Azerbaijan, as well as Soviet Armenia, as a springboard for the occupation of Georgia

И. Ф. Павлюков (Агапов) – забытый руководитель большевиков Царицына в Октябрьской революции 1917 года

The article is devoted to the study of the life path and revolutionary activity of Ivan Fedorovich Pavlyukov (Agapov), the undeservedly forgotten leader of the Tsaritsyn Bolsheviks. He came to the leadership of the Bolshevik faction in the local organization of the RSDLP in JulyAugust 1917 during the imprisonment of S. K. Minin and Ya. Z. Erman. It was he who led the creation and arming of the Red Guard detachments, and then the establishment of Soviet power in Tsaritsyn. The leadership of the RCP(B) accused him of indecision. S. K. Minin tried to consign his role in the October events to oblivion. This work was completed by I. V. Stalin’s chekists, who accused I. F. Pavlyukov of Trotskyism. He was subjected to repression and, apparently, disappeared in Stalin’s dungeons. Ispart’s materials contain his memories of the October days in Tsaritsyn, which we publish in the appendix to the article.

PECULIARITIES OF DEVELOPMENT OF CITIES IN THE NORTHERN BORDER REGIONS OF AZERBAIJAN AND THE REGULATION OF THEIR DEVELOPMENT

The aim of the article is to investigate the features of the demographic and socio-economic development of cities in the northern border areas of Azerbaijan (Sheki, Zagatala, Gakh, Balaken, Gabala, Oguz, Khachmaz, Husar), to determine the direction of their perspective regulation in accordance with the trends that are taking place. Methods and methodology. The article uses such methods as historical overview, analysis of statistics of different periods, comparative analysis and descriptive method of demonstration of geographical objects. The study deals with taking into account the geostrategic significance of population resettlement in border areas, the importance of ensuring their economic, social and ecological development, regulating population migration processes, creating new jobs and implementing other social programs. The novelty of the article is that the directions of the demographic, socio-economic development of the cities are actually substantiated not only as the main supporting frames of the region, but also in terms of national interests, geopolitical and strategic situation. The article also identified socio-economic, natural-geographic, and other issues. factors affecting the location of cities in the northern border areas. mostly became possible during the years of Soviet power. The study says that cities are the largest economic centers of the country and the main centers of population settlement. The article scientifically analyzes geographical problems in Azerbaijan. Clarified features of Rego. It is concluded that it is clear from the article that scientific analyzes corresponding to geographical changes should be increased, such issues are considered comprehensively and universally in research. Conclusions. The study says that cities are the largest economic centers of the country and the main centers of population settlement. Before the establishment of Soviet power in Azerbaijan, only the cities of Sheki and Zagatala existed on this territory. Although these two settlements have long been formed as cities, they acquired city status only in 1840. And the cities of Balaken, Gakh, Gabala, Husar, Khachmaz, Oguz and other settlements located on the territory of administrative districts were created during the years of Soviet power and acquired the status of cities and towns. In general, the economic and geographical analysis of the development of the cities of the northern border regions allows us to reach the following conclusions and put forward a number of proposals: – in the creation of urban settlements and the formation of their modern system, the leading role was played by the organizational-economic, social-administrative management function that they perform for the surrounding territories; – Another city-forming factor is the food industry, which is represented by small-scale enterprises that mainly rely on the processing of local agricultural raw materials.

ІСТОРІЯ ЕНЕРГЕТИКИ М. КИЄВА: 125 РОКІВ ЦЕНТРАЛЬНІЙ ЕЛЕКТРИЧНІЙ СТАНЦІЇ

The history of the construction and operation of the object of cultural heritage - the Kyiv Central Power Station (ЦЕС-1), the second alternating current station in pre-revolutionary Russia, is considered. The development and improvement of electrical and thermal equipment, changes in the fuel base during the difficult times of the First World War, the revolution and the establishment of Soviet power in Kyiv. The transfer of the station to the control of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR, the beginning of research on MHD energy generation, the construction of the second largest research facility in the USSR for this technology began a new - scientific stage in the life of CES-1 as a scientific and experimental base of the Institute of Electrodynamics of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR. For now, the work of the team of scientists and engineering personnel is focused on thermal engineering problems of energy already within the framework of a separate Institute - thermal energy technologies of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine. This living monument of the era of industrialization (end of the 19th - 20th centuries) has complex significance for Kyiv and Ukraine: as a legacy of the history of energy and as an active experimental and technological complex.

Training of Personnel for the Judicial System of the Far East in the 1920s

The system of domestic education, including legal education, has been in a state of transformation since the early 1990s. Copying the Western structure, returning to the origins of the domestic education system of the younger generation, have not yet formed clear trajectories of further movement among the representatives of the leadership of the educational system of the Russian Federation. In our opinion, in order to understand the processes currently taking place and predict the directions of development of domestic legal education in new conditions, it is important to study the experience of the transformation of legal education during the change of the form of the state in Russia, in the conditions of radical political transformations, the construction of the Soviet legal system. The presented article highlights the problems of the formation of the training of specialists of the judicial system of the Far East. The authors, using archival material, reveal the process of completing courses, pay attention to the academic disciplines taught, report on the problems of students’ academic performance. The results of the functioning of the course system for judges of the Far East, which operated in the 1920s, are summarized. The authors come to the conclusion that the systemic disintegration of the structure of social and political life created by October 1917 the prerequisites for the beginning of revolutionary events and marked the transition from one paradigm to another, characterized by a change in the state structure, ideology, political, economic and social relations. The educational space, being a part of public life, is generated on the basis of a set of ideological and state attitudes, therefore it has also been involved in the transformation process. The establishment of Soviet power in the Far Eastern region contributed to the opening of prospects for the development of legal education in the period under study. Despite the Bolsheviks’ rejection of the right of the Russian Empire, a new legal concept was gradually emerging, forming and developing. On its basis, the entire system of legal training of specialists for the Soviet judicial authorities was transformed.

Underground and terrorist activities of anarchists during the establishment of Soviet power in Russia: the emergence and activities of the "anarchist underground".

The article deals with the causes and history of the emergence and activities of the "All-Russian Organization of Underground Anarchists" (VOAP), which began its activities after the deterioration of relations between anarchists and Bolsheviks. This paper reveals the reasons for the emergence of the organization, the motives of its terrorist activities. The author has researched and analyzed the literary heritage of the underground anarchists, studied the works devoted to the activities of this organization. All this made it possible to form an objective opinion about the activities, goals and objectives of this organization. The object of the study is the activity of the VOAP. The subject of the study is the history of the organization's formation, its propaganda and terrorist activities. According to the author, the VOAP originated from among the most radical anarchists who were dissatisfied and offended by the Bolsheviks, and their motives were revenge rather than revolutionary struggle. The roots of the motives of the "underground workers" lay in the events of the disarmament and defeat of anarchist groups by the Bolsheviks in the spring of 1918 and the subsequent repression of representatives of the left opposition. The terrorist attack carried out by the Moscow group VOAPA and its consequences not only did not become the beginning of the "third revolution", but on the contrary, alienated some sympathizers. The transition of the "underground" to individual terror was caused by revenge motives.

Кеңес мемлекетіндегі «Қызыл террор»

In the article, the author, relying on many sources, shows the policy of the “Red Terror” carried out in various periods of the Soviet state. Namely, using a number of historical documents and various government decisions, the author proves how repression and terror began in the country after the establishment of Soviet power, reveals the causes and ideological foundations of the policy pursued by the Bolsheviks at the state level.At the same time, the article comprehensively shows that as a result of a broad policy of terror against internal and external opposition, millions of people were persecuted, imprisoned in hundreds of concentration camps, and also died as a result of punitive measures. In fact, the party and the Soviet leadership used state bodies and various punitive forces to carry out a policy of terror against their people, the activities of which were shown and justified by the subordinate mass media as a just struggle against the enemies of the USSR.Thus, the article proves that the “Red Terror” carried out in the Soviet state was the period of the greatest tragedy in the history of the 20th century

История поселка Борового в ракурсе модели Батлера

The article discusses the history of the formation of the resort village “Borovoye” in accordance with the Butler’s model. Butler's model itself breaks down the development process of a tourist resort into five separate stages: discovery, growth and development, success, stagnation, renewal. At the first stage, the settlement is explored or discovered by a small number of people. From the sources of those years, it is known that in 1898 in the pine forest surrounding Lake Borovoye, by decree of the tsarist administration, the State Forestry was created to protect forests. In addition, the next decree on the foundation of the health resort followed in 1910, in which patients with pulmonary tuberculosis and other diseases, primarily related to the respiratory system, would be treated. After the establishment of Soviet power and civil confrontation, starting in 1920, the entire area around the settlement of Borovoye was recognized by a decree of the Council of People's Commissars as a resort place that received nationwide significance throughout the RSFSR. Over time, when the uniqueness of the healing air and the diverse flora, as well as the beauty of these places were generally recognized, in 1935 the Borovoye State Reserve was organized. At the stage of growth and development, these places, as a rule, receive a powerful impetus for development, in our case; this is the laying of the railway from Petropavlovsk along the Trans-Siberian Railway in the 20s of the last century and the appearance of a sanatorium in Shchuchinsk. The next phenomenon is the evacuation of scientific institutes and many prominent scientists here during the Great Patriotic War. A new stage in the development of the village began in the 1950s, when the development of virgin and fallow lands began in Northern Kazakhstan. During the period of stagnation and in the difficult nineties, when the republic found itself in a socio-economic crisis, the popularity of the Borovoye resort decreased somewhat, as the income of the population decreased in these years, because of which the initial attractiveness of the resort place weakened. Currently, due to the pandemic, directly related to diseases of the respiratory system, the need for the Borovoye resort has increased dramatically. According to Butler's model, there are two options during the renewal of a tourist resort: to decline, or to rejuvenate and develop more sustainable strategies

‘Biography’ by Ibrahim Makhmudov: a Soviet Party Leader Views on a Rural Muslim Community of the Early 20th Century

The author analyzes the memoirs of Ibrahim Makhmudovich Makhmudov (1893-1970), an Astrakhan Yurt Tatar, one of the active builders of the Soviet system in the Tatar villages of the Astrakhan region. Shortly before his death, in 1969, I.M. Makhmudov completed a handwritten version of his memoirs, in which he reflected aspects of the daily life of the Muslim community of the Yurt-Tatar village of Zatsarevo in 1900-14. Based on the personal observations, Makhmudov compiled memories of the last decade and a half of the quiet life of the Tatar-Muslim community of a provincial Russian town before the turbulent events of wars and revolutions that ended with the establishment of Soviet power. The author of the memoirs, as an eyewitness and bearer of cultural tradition, comprehensively and deeply, sometimes scrupulously, covers the events of the early 20th century in a closed Muslim community - the mahalla. However, his assessments to these events and lifestyle area also assessments of a Soviet party leader, who both was an atheist and a person with a huge life experience in the struggle for the ideals of Soviet power as well as a convinced supporter.

Reflection of the Social and Economic Situation in Kyrgyzstan (20-30 Years the Twentieth Century)

With the establishment of Soviet power in Kyrgyzstan, the party faced the task ofimplementing reforms in the socio-economic, agrarian, educational and other spheres. However, before the reforms, there was a need to study the socio-economic situation of the region. In this connection, from the mid-1920s to the late 1930s, a number of works were published, devoted to the study of the socio-economic situation of Kyrgyzstan. However, the socio-economic situation of Kyrgyzstan is one of theneglected issues. This is due to the one-sidedness of many scientific works written in the spirit of Soviet ideology. This was the main reason for writing this article, the them of which requires a new understanding and analysis of the works of Soviet party workers who studied the socio-economic reforms carried out in Kyrgyzstan in the 1920s and 1930s.

THE DUBNO SEMINARY OF THE EASTERN RITE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEO-UNION PROCESS IN VOLYN

А Union of the Eastern Rite, also called neo-Union, appeared in Volyn in 1925. Its widening took place under the control of Lutsk Catholic Bishop Adolf Shelonzhek, and the Ukrainian Greek Catholic clergy was not allowed to participate in this process. In the absence of a separate neo-Union clergy, the bishop relied on apostates from Orthodoxy, known as "defections" by the people, who underwent short-term retraining at the Lutsk Catholic Seminary and also temporarily transferred certain Latin priests to the Eastern Rite. Since this staff policy did not justify itself, in the autumn of 1928, Shelonzhek opened a Seminary of the Eastern Rite in Dubno. Due to unresolved financial problems, it stopped functioning in a year and resumed work only in 1931, when it was taken over by the Vatican, where the curriculum was drawn up. Reverend Anthony Dabrovskyi was appointed to be the rector of the Seminary. Although the main burden of financing the educational institution continued to be borne by the Lutsk Diocese, most of its students came from outside Volyn and were appointed to the Uniate parishes of other voivodeships after graduation. The teachers of the Dubno Seminary changed often, and the number of simultaneous students rarely exceeded forty people for five courses, tending to decrease in the second half of the 1930s. The spiritual care of the seminarians was carried out by the apostolic visitor, Bishop Mykola Charnetskyi, who ordained the graduates to holy orders but had no influence on their parish appointments. By 1939, only 23 graduates of the Dubno Seminary became priests, of which only six received parishes in the Lutsk Diocese. After the establishment of Soviet power in Volyn, the educational institution ceased its work, and its property was nationalized.

The disarmament of anarchists in the provinces of the Central Chernozem region in the spring of 1918 (based on the materials of the Orel and Voronezh provinces).

The article examines the confrontation of the armed anarchist detachments of the "Black Guard" with the Bolsheviks in the spring of 1918. The causes and features of the emergence of anarchist detachments, the position of anarchists in the political arena of the country in 1917 - early 1918 are illustrated. The author gives an assessment of some early Soviet studies on "anarchist uprisings" in the provinces of the Central Chernozem region. After the February and October revolutions of 1917, anarchism in Russia embarked on a new path of development, which was characterized by attempts to unite and create a single combat force to protect the "revolutionary gains" from the interventionists and White Guard forces. The object of the study is the history of the anarchist movement in the Central Chernozem region during the establishment of Soviet power. The subject of the study is the armed actions of anarchists against the authorities in Orel and Voronezh in March-April 1918. The methodological basis is the consideration of historical phenomena and their interrelations in the context of the studied time (the principle of historicism). A comparative historical method was used to establish the similarities and distinctive features of the armed actions of anarchists in Orel and Voronezh. The article attempts to comprehensively study the history of the anarchist movement in the Central Black Earth region. The author analyzes only a small fragment of this topic. The spring of 1918 was a period of the defeat of anarchist detachments and organizations throughout Russia, these processes took place on the territory of the Central Chernozem region. Based on the works of his predecessors and memoir sources, the features of the defeat of the anarchist detachments in Orel and Voronezh are analyzed. During the analysis, it was possible to demonstrate that the anarchists were only part of the rebel forces, consisting of detachments arriving from the Ukrainian front, dissatisfied with the supply. Some Soviet authors often saw in these speeches a "Socialist-Revolutionary" conspiracy" or assigned the anarchists a leading role, making them the main instigators of uprisings. Which, according to the author, is an erroneous position.