Establishment Of Diplomatic Relations Research Articles

Bayesian phylogeographic inference of wheat yellow mosaic virus in China and Japan suggests that the virus migration history coincided with historical events

Wheat yellow mosaic virus (WYMV) is one of the most serious viral pathogens causing reductions in wheat yield in East Asia. We investigated the phylodynamics of WYMV by analysing the CP, VPg and P1 genes to understand the origin and dispersal of the virus. A Bayesian phylogenetic analysis revealed that the most recent common WYMV ancestor occurred in approximately 1742 (95% credibility interval, 1439–1916) CE (Common Era), and the evolutionary rates of the VPg, CP and P1 genes were 6.669 × 10−4 (95% credibility interval: 4.575 × 10−4–8.927 × 10−4), 2.468 × 10−4 (95% credibility interval: 1.667 × 10−4–3.338 × 10−4) and 5.765 × 10−5 (95% credibility interval: 3.285 × 10−6–1.252 × 10−4), respectively. Our phylogeographic analysis indicated that the WYMV population may have originated in Henan Province, China, first spreading to Japan in the mid-19th century and stopping after the Japanese surrender in World War II. The second wave spread to Japan from Shandong Province, China, in approximately 1977, a few years after the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and Japan. Before the founding of the People's Republic of China, Henan Province was the emigration centre of WYMV in East Asia, and after the late 20th century, Jiangsu and Shandong Provinces were also the virus emigration centres in East Asia. In addition, there were two migration pathways from Japan to Jiangsu and Shandong Provinces, China, in approximately 1918 and approximately 1999 respectively. Our results suggest that the wide spread of WYMV in East Asia is strongly related to human factors.

China–Canada negotiations on the establishment of diplomatic relations and the government of Pierre Trudeau’s early China policies

This article presents an original and detailed account of the negotiations between China and Canada on the establishment of diplomatic relations in Stockholm during Pierre Trudeau’s early government, using a wide range of primary sources from both countries, including declassified governmental documents, memorandums, telegrams, and memoirs, which provides a comprehensive understanding of the sociopolitical dynamics involved. It highlights the significance of Canada’s diplomatic efforts in recognising China before the United States, representing an independent diplomatic stance. The Canadian way had become a model for subsequent countries to establish diplomatic relations with China. The establishment of diplomatic ties had opened a new chapter in the development of bilateral relations. The mutual respect and compromise shown by the two sides while adhering to their own core interests in the negotiations have provided useful lessons for the two governments to deal with current rigid bilateral relations.

The Establishment of Diplomatic Relations Between the Russian Empire and the Kingdom of Portugal

The Establishment of Diplomatic Relations Between the Russian Empire and the Kingdom of Portugal

한국 화교 공동체 조직의 변천과 특징

This paper systematically examines the evolution, characteristics, and role of Korean overseas Korean community organizations over the past hundred years. Korean overseas Chinese organizations have played an important role in the development and unity of the Korean overseas Chinese community, but there is a great lack of research on them. Therefore, through a survey on the social organizations of overseas Koreans, this book reveals the current status of trend organizations and overseas Korean associations and explores the process of organization formation in the Korean overseas Korean community. In particular, we analyzed the Seoul and Incheon areas, which are the economic centers of the Korean diaspora with the largest diaspora population today. By examining the formation and development of social organizations in Incheon and Seoul, which are the nucleus of the overseas Korean community, we explain the changes in the overseas Korean community since the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and Korea in terms of the government’s increased interest in and policies toward the overseas Korean community, the rapid development of private economic and trade relations between China and Korea, efforts to expand overseas exchanges, and the revival of the overseas Korean community. He also pointed out that the mutual migration of Chinese and Korean citizens will have an important impact on the future development of both countries.

The Catholic Church in the USA and its attitude to the USSR (1933-1941): based on the materials of "Brief notes on the attitude of various Christian Churches to the moment" by Metropolitan Veniamin (Fedchenkov)

The subject of the study is "Brief notes on the attitude of various Christian churches to the moment", compiled by Metropolitan of the Aleutians and North America, Exarch of the Russian Orthodox Church in North America Veniamin (Fedchenkov) on January 22, 1942. Analyzing their content, the author examines in detail the anti-Soviet activities of Catholics in the United States of America in 1933-1941, directed first against the establishment of diplomatic relations between the United States and the USSR, and then against the allocation of assistance to the Soviet Union to fight the Nazi invaders. The mentioned document has not yet been put into scientific circulation, although many of the thoughts and considerations of the mentioned church hierarch were used by the government of the USSR to develop its foreign policy course. The methodological basis of this work includes the principles of historicism, consistency and objectivity. The analysis of the "Brief Notes..." by Metropolitan Veniamin (Fedchenkov) in comparison with a wide range of other sources allowed us to build a logical chain of relations between the USSR and the USA in 1933-1941, in which the anti-Soviet activities of the Roman Catholic Church in the USA played a negative role. The study of the "Brief Notes..." by Metropolitan Veniamin (Fedchenkov) made it possible to assess not only the seriousness of the influence of the Catholic Church on the foreign policy of the United States of America and other European countries in 1933-1941 and to better understand the nature of the events that took place after the end of World War II, but also to comprehend the role of the Catholic Church in the political processes taking place in Ukraine today. In the "Brief Notes...", completed by 1942, Metropolitan Veniamin pointed out the religious origins of Ukrainian nationalism, the narratives of which have not changed since the time of the events under consideration. The Patriarchal exarch gave a surprisingly accurate description of the various movements of the Catholic Church in the United States, which, oddly enough, does not lose its relevance in current realities.

The Prosperity and Decline of the Chinese Community in the Mongolian People’s Republic (1949-1973)

After the establishment of diplomatic relations between the Mongolian People’s Republic and the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the Chinese community in the MPR emerged as a significant link facilitating bilateral relations. The formation and evolution of this community were intricately connected to the establishment and functioning of the Association of Overseas Chinese in Mongolia and its associated institutions. Throughout this process, the political decisions made by both the Mongolian and Chinese governments played a pivotal role. Particularly for the Chinese side, the Chinese community served as a crucial platform for its foreign policy objectives during this period. Additionally, the broader context of the Socialist Bloc also greatly influenced the development trajectory of the Chinese community in the MPR.

Strategic directions of cooperation between Ukraine and the Republic of Turkey through the prism of ratification of the free trade agreement

The article is devoted to the study of strategic directions of cooperation between Ukraine and the Republic of Turkey through the prism of the ratification of the Free Trade Agreement. Scientific interest in the topic was aroused by the provisions of the Agreement on Free Trade between the Government of Ukraine and the Government of the Republic of Turkey in terms of the legal obligations of the states and their consequences for the parties. In the article, the author analyzed in historical retrospect the Protocol on the establishment of diplomatic relations between Ukraine and the Republic of Turkey. Also, the Framework Agreement between the Government of Ukraine and the Government of the Republic of Turkey on cooperation in the field of high technologies, aviation and space industries and its impact on the Free Trade Agreement and its formation were analyzed. The analysis of this Framework Agreement by the author was carried out through the prism of the specified legal obligations of the states, in particular, the legal obligations of Ukraine in terms of granting benefits and preferences to Turkish companies were investigated. In addition, the Memorandum of Understanding on the Free Trade Agreement between the Government of Ukraine and the Government of the Republic of Turkey and bilateral trade between the Government of Ukraine and the Government of the Republic of Turkey was examined. In particular, the author analyzed the provisions of the Memorandum as part of the proposed legal mechanisms for the protection of the market for agricultural products. The content of the Free Trade Agreement between the Government of Ukraine and the Government of the Republic of Turkey was analyzed taking into account the provisions of the Agreement on Agriculture of the World Trade Organization. To fulfill the stated purpose of this research, the author investigated the provisions of the Constitution of Ukraine in the part of regulating the principles of foreign economic activity regarding the compliance of the provisions of the Free Trade Agreement between the Government of Ukraine and the Government of the Republic of Turkey with domestic legislation.

Beyond revolutions: Mao-era China’s market entry strategies in Latin America

How did the People’s Republic of China develop commercial relations with the Global South during its Maoist years? This paper aims to explore the question through China’s market entry strategies in Latin America. Latin America posed significant challenges for Mao-era China in establishing robust relations. Under intense US pressure and the dominance of conservative politics, most Latin American nations maintained minimal commercial and political ties with China until 1971 when Beijing replaced Taipei in the UN. Notable exceptions were Cuba, following its armed revolution in 1959, and Chile, after its peaceful revolution in 1970, which formally recognised the PRC, leading to substantial trade agreements. This paper examines Chinese trade promotion in the region during the 1960s and early 1970s, contending that commercial ties, particularly Chinese exports to Latin America, were not simply the inevitable outcome of these revolutions and the establishment of diplomatic relations. Policy makers in Beijing and Chinese commercial representatives in Latin America strategically navigated market entry by leveraging cultural promotions, focusing on competitive Chinese products, notably processed foods, and tapping into the Chinese Overseas community as intermediaries. These strategies not only cultivated a favourable image of China in the region but also acquainted Latin American consumers with Chinese brands and products. Moreover, the paper analyzes how Chinese trade promoters recognised and addressed the nuances and disparities among Latin American countries, comprehended the significance of Cuba and Chile within the region, and contextualised Latin America’s position in the global market.

New Thoughts and Prospects on the Role of City Diplomacy in China-Korea Relations under the Unprecedented Changes of the Past Century

Today's world is accelerating in the unprecedented changes of the century, China's emergence in the field of science and technology, the United States to Japan and South Korea to set up a chip alliance to limit China's scientific and technological development, which is a layer of complex geopolitical relations of the Northeast Asian region of the country's diplomatic outlook fog. China and South Korea, the two countries have a long history of interaction, especially since the establishment of diplomatic relations between the two countries rapid development of economic and trade exchanges, to the development of the two countries have brought significant benefits. With the evolution of the world pattern, especially the two major powers of China and the United States in the Asia-Pacific region of the strategic game, South Korea is faced with the dilemma of choosing sides, to the interaction between China and South Korea has brought great instability, to the humanities exchanges, economic and trade exchanges between the two countries also caused great inconvenience, affecting the two countries of the political, economic and diplomatic relations interaction. In the face of many dilemmas, the role of city diplomacy has become an effective way to maintain and promote normal exchanges between China and South Korea, and city diplomacy will make great contributions to the stability of China-South Korea relations.

한국 정부의 화교에 대한 제도적 차별과 화교 사회의 인식 및 대응

The purpose of this paper is to examine What kind of institutional discrimination did the government of South Korea against Overseas Chinese in Korea from the 1960s to the mid-1990s, and how Overseas Chinese community recognized and responded to such a discrimination. The materials mainly used for these analysis are ‘Han Hwa Monthly Magazine’ and ‘Qiao Sheng Monthly Magazine’ published by Overseas Chinese in Seoul. Overseas Chinese community was very critical of the government’s institutional discrimination, such as restrictions on residence, restrictions on acquisition and ownership of real estate, and farmland. Chinese community responded in various ways to improve or abolish the government’s institutional discrimination based on the fact that Overseas Chinese is not just foreigners. When Korea-China Friendship Treaty was signed in 1965, Overseas Chinese community attempted to demand and achieve the abolition of various institutional discrimination through the Embassy of the Republic of China (Taiwan) in Korea. As government of South Korea concerned that acceptance of their requests would guarantee their vested rights, and provide a foundation for developing their economy, their requests were rejected. As a result, they were treated equally as other foreigners. And just before the establishment of diplomatic relations between Korea and the People’s Republic of China, Overseas Chinese Association of Seoul strongly tried to request abolition of restrictions on real estate acquisition through the Embassy of the Republic of China (Taiwan) to be ended in vain. They had the nationality of the Republic of China (Taiwan). They were very dissatisfied with their government which failed to fulfill their requests.

Hungarian coaches in Cold War Cuba

ABSTRACT This essay will examine Cold War sport links between two relatively small-sized, satellite countries: Hungary and Cuba, via the activities of Hungarian coaches on the island. These started in the 1960s after the establishment of diplomatic relations and show a concentration in the first half of and the middle of the 1970s. The investigation aims to find out the main reasons and objectives for the presence of Hungarian sport professionals on the island as well as to evaluate the impact of their work. The study begins with providing a brief overview of the evolution of the foreign relations of the Socialist bloc in the 1950s and 1960s and within this context, of Hungarian-Cuban bilateral links, finally narrowing down the analysis on sport relations. In this context, two case studies are presented: one on football and the other on water polo, traditional fields of success for Hungarians, but little known / not popular on the island. The investigation – based on documents of the Hungarian National Archive and contemporary press articles – aims to contribute to a deeper understanding of international (sport) relations in the 1960s and 1970s, adding both to Sport History and New Cold War Studies.

Establishment of Diplomatic Relations Between Czechoslovakia and the Holy See After the Creation of Czechoslovakia in the Fall of 1918

The present study deals with the establishment and development of diplomatic relations between Czechoslovakia and the Holy See immediately after the creation of Czechoslovakia in the fall of 1918 which underwent a dramatic and turbulent change. The most acute questions to discuss included the filling of Czech and Slovak bishopric thrones, the Church administration in Slovakia and the matters of Church education while the filling of the bishopric thrones in the Czech lands and Slovakia proved to be of crucial importance for the proper functioning of the Church administration in Czechoslovakia. The study is based on source material, mainly of diplomatic nature, from the Archive of the Czech Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Prague and the Vatican archives, the study reconstructs the character, form and transformation of diplomatic relations between the young Republic and the headquarters of the Catholic Church in Rome at the turn of the 1910s and 1920s. Extensive archival funds have been confronted with numerous literature sources, including contemporary history texts.

Development of The Arts in China and Belarus in the Context of State Policy

In the history of international relations, cooperation in the field of art is closely connected with the foreign policy aspect of the development of interstate relations. As Belarusian-Chinese interaction deepens, the cultural factor has become one of the important aspects influencing bilateral relations. This article notes that over the 30 years since the establishment of diplomatic relations between Belarus and China, cultural cooperation has gone through different periods. The history of the development of contacts in the field of art between the two countries is examined, the achievements and current problems faced by both countries in this area are analyzed. An example of cooperation between Belarus and China in the field of art represented by the National Gallery of Belarus and the National Art Museum of China is noted.

Vietnamese-Chinese tourism Cooperation 1991-2022

The study is devoted to the cooperation between Vietnam and China in the field of tourism from 1991 to 2022. The relevance of the topic is considered due to the long-term historical relations between the two countries, which play a key role in the regional context. With the establishment of diplomatic relations in 1950 and their normalization in 1991, relations have become stronger and more stable, covering various fields, including tourism. The object of the study is the cooperation between Vietnam and China in the field of tourism, and the subject includes directions, formats, mechanisms and prospects of cooperation over the specified period. The purpose of the work is to identify the specifics and analyze trends in the development of this cooperation, highlighting the historical background, formats of cooperation, directions of tourist flows, mechanisms of interaction and development prospects. This study is based on the theory of international relations, in particular, liberalism, to analyze the dynamics of Vietnamese-Chinese relations in the context of tourism in the period from 1991 to 2022. The study was conducted using systemic and socio-cultural approaches, as well as using mixed methods, including data analysis, interviews and a literature review. The scientific novelty of the study lies in a comprehensive analysis of the impact of the modern international context on Vietnamese-Chinese cooperation in the field of tourism. The main focus is on the prospects for sustainable development of the tourism industry, emphasizing the importance of qualitative and quantitative improvements. The findings of the study point to the active development of tourism cooperation between Vietnam and China over the past 30 years, noting the constant growth in the number of tourists. Cooperation is expanding and deepening through the use of various mechanisms, such as improving the legal framework, improving the quality of services, developing new routes, developing tourism products, introducing smart tourism and protecting cultural heritage. Thus, the article provides a comprehensive look at Vietnamese-Chinese tourism cooperation, emphasizing its importance for both countries in the context of integration and development of the region.

Soviet Diplomatic Efforts to Prevent Hungary’s Alignment with Germany in World War II (1939– 1941)

The history of Soviet-Hungarian interactions from the establishment of diplomatic relations until Hungary joined World War II alongside the Axis powers offers valuable insights into the dynamics between small and great powers, as well as the efforts of small European states, particularly Hungary, to navigate their national interests in foreign policy amidst Nazi Germany's encroachments. This period was defined by two primary factors: the Hungarian political elite, led by Miklós Horthy, sought to join a quasi-"crusade" against Comintern Soviet Russia, while simultaneously striving to avoid deep involvement in major conflicts between the great powers. This dual approach aligned with the policies of Hitler's Western appeasers, who aimed to redirect German expansion eastward. In this geopolitical scenario, American and Western European actors (including Great Britain and France) were relegated to the role of observers, anticipating a prolonged conflict between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union that would drain both. Hungary, as strategized by Budapest, hoped to secure a position among these observers, avoiding direct conflict participation, and to later engage in territorial reconfiguration post-World War II. However, the reality in Europe by the early 1940s diverged significantly, with Western powers (the USA and Great Britain) unable to redirect Hitler's global domination ambitions eastward. Facing an existential threat, these powers were compelled to enter the war. Against this backdrop, Soviet diplomacy endeavored to deter Hungary's alliance with Nazi Germany. Although ultimately unsuccessful, examining these diplomatic efforts offers valuable lessons in the context of the current evolution towards a multipolar world.

СПІВПРАЦЯ ЄС ТА РЕСПУБЛІКИ КОРЕЯ НА СУЧАСНОМУ ЕТАПІ

The article is devoted to the analysis of the features of cooperation between the EU and the Republic of Korea at the present stage. Today, the European Union and the Republic of Korea are important strategic and economic partners, sharing similar values stemming from their liberal-democratic systems. However, the intensification of primarily economic cooperation began only in the late 20th to early 21st centuries, gradually expanding into other areas. Since the establishment of diplomatic relations in 1963, EU-Korea relations have significantly expanded over the past six decades, along with far-reaching changes and progress in our societies, economies, scientific research fields, and digital technologies. Both sides have transformed into strategic partners, sharing universal values, promoting peace, prosperity, and security, and addressing such important global challenges as climate change and the global pandemic. Korea was the first country in Asia with which the EU concluded three key agreements: a comprehensive Framework Agreement, a Free Trade Agreement, and a Framework Agreement on participation in crisis management operations. Relations between the EU and South Korea are deep and encompass around 40 regular dialogues covering economic, political, security, and cultural cooperation. There are several challenges that need to be addressed to improve relations between the EU and the Republic of Korea. The first issue is related to the implementation of agreements. Despite the fact that bilateral relations are based on three key agreements and there are numerous channels and forums for communication and cooperation, the relations still lack better and more thorough practical application of the issues discussed or agreed upon in documents. The second challenge is part of the Free Trade Agreement, which was signed in 2010, the first of the new generation agreements signed by the EU and the second largest free trade agreement in history. However, over the past decade, the world has changed. An area insufficiently covered in the agreement is e-commerce, which has grown even more significantly over the past two years of the global pandemic. Nevertheless, on October 31, 2023, during the 11th EU-Korea Trade Committee meeting, the parties agreed to start negotiations between the EU and Korea on a digital trade agreement.

«Через Мексику в Советский Союз»: немецкие писатели-эмигранты в Мексике в годы Второй мировой войны и их контакты с СССР

The article is devoted to the history of the German writers’ emigration during the Second World War in Mexico. Mexico was not a major center of German emigration like the Soviet Union or the United States, but the Mexican government supported anti-fascist émigrés who were in France before its occupation. The Mexican consulate in Marseille issued visas to many German writers, but only Anna Seghers was able to move from France to Mexico. Bodo Uhse and Ludwig Renn went there from the United States, Alfred Kantorovicz and Hans Marchwitza had to stay in the United States, because transit through the USA became impossible since 1941. German writers maintained constant contact with the Soviet Writers’ Union. Correspondence often did not reach the addressees, but before the establishment of diplomatic relations between the USSR and Mexico, this was the only way to exchange information. The small German colony in Mexico was engaged in active antifascist activities. The movement “Free Germany” (“Freies Deutschland”) was organized in Mexico a year and a half earlier than the National Committee “Free Germany” in the USSR. Although it seemed that they were two branches of the same organization, in fact they were two different entities with different goals and with the same name. At this moment an internal conflict among the German Communists became apparent; years later it had tragic consequences. After the surrender of Germany, German writers were not able to go directly to their homeland, since the American law prohibiting transit through the United States was still in force. In 1946–1948 German writers were leaving Mexico on Soviet cargo ships: they could get to Germany only through the Soviet Union.

Czechoslovak politicians in Soviet diplomatic reports and the issue of establishing official relations between Czechoslovakia and Russia / USSR (early 1920s)

The article analyzes the reports of Soviet representatives to the People’s Commissariat for Foreign Affairs about the views and policies of Czechoslovak state and political figures regarding Russia (the USSR) in the 1920s. Trying to achieve official recognition of Soviet Russia, and then the USSR, the heads of the Soviet mission in the Czechoslovak Republic S. I. Gillerson, P. N. Mostovenko, K. K. Yurenev, V. A. Antonov-Ovseenko, A. Ya. Arosev reported to G. V. Chicherin and M. M. Litvinov about the positions of the president, ministers, heads of political parties, diplomats of Czechoslovak Republic on this issue. At the same time, they often gave detailed characteristics of Czechoslovak figures, pointed out the internal factors and external reasons that prevented the ratification of the temporary Soviet-Czechoslovak agreement of 1922 and the establishment of diplomatic relations between the two countries. In addition, in these reports were recorded changes in the positions of individual politicians towards Russia depending on external circumstances. The documents of the Archive of Foreign Policy of the Russian Federation and published materials on the history of Soviet-Czechoslovak relations, used by the author, help to understand better the problematic nature of the relations between the two countries.

‘Letters to Taiwanese Compatriots’: The prc’s Unification Ideology and Taiwanese Response in Cross-Strait Communication

Abstract This article presents a political discourse analysis of the People’s Republic of China’s (prc) narration of Taiwan through the cross-Strait epistolary series ‘Letters to Taiwanese Compatriots’ released between 1950 and 2019. This study aims to discern the prc’s intent for domestic and international communication in framing Taiwan’s sovereignty into its own narrative using cultural, ideological, economic, and military appeals. In so doing, it explores the connection between storytelling, political communication, and military operations as evolving through the decades, starting with the cross-Strait crises of the 1950s, China’s establishment of diplomatic relations with foreign countries in the 1970s and its global rise in the last three decades. In the final part, we will analyse the response and several New Year’s addresses by Tsai Ing-wen between 2019 and 2022. This article unravels a crucial difference between the two sides of the Strait, crystallised in the fabrication of a dissimilar understanding of their respective historical, political, and cultural identities.

Media Memory Construction and Cultural Sustainability

The sustainable development of culture is often regarded as the core of cultural security and uniqueness. The homogenization of culture brought about by globalization poses a threat to cultural diversity and sustainability as well as to the uniqueness of national cultures to varying degrees. In this context, pan-Asian countries have taken various measures to protect their cultural identity and avoid the breaking in cultural intergenerational inheritance. Since the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and South Korea in 1992 and the establishment of South Korea’s “Building up the Nation with Culture” strategy in 1998, Korean culture has developed Hallyu, or the “Korean wave”, in China and other countries via K-dramas, K-pop, and K-movies, establishing a significant recognition of K-culture worldwide. Although memory can be both personal and social, shared cultural memory is a core element for integrating individuals. Compared with individual memory, media memory has more advantages in continuity and stability, and is almost naturally endowed with social and cultural significance. Therefore, constructing media memory to achieve sustainable cultural development is a feasible and reasonable method. This paper reviews the influence and evolution of K-culture in China, and takes K-content media and its acceptance in China as an example to explore the logic and significance of media memory construction of culture and enhancement of cultural influence, especially on foreign audiences. In addition, from the perspective of media memory construction, the paper examines the reasons for the gradual decline of K-culture’s influence in China, and argues that media memory construction is a practical way to sustain cultural influence, so as to form common experiences that relevant parties can learn from.