Orchard Establishment Research Articles

English

With rich land, abundant water and a favourable climate, hill agriculture in North-eastern region of India has considerable potential to grow and contribute towards improving farm incomes, enhancing food and nutrition security, reducing rural poverty and accelerating the overall economic growth of the region. Unfortunately the growth potential of hill agriculture has remained under-exploited due to lack of system-specific production technologies, poor infrastructure (transport, markets, processing) and underdeveloped institutions (credit, extension, information, insurance), inaccessible habitations, diverse socio-cultural and agricultural typologies and fragmented land holdings. The North-eastern region lying between 21.5o N - 29.5o N latitudes and 85.5o E - 97.3o E longitudes comprises of eight states - Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura and Sikkim. It may be mentioned that in hill area particularly horticultural crop cultivation as an alternative to jhuming may prove to be a boon in the regional economy. In NEH region farming being the main stay of the people, development of horticulture will markedly improve the economy of the people. Establishment of orchards and planting of plantation crops on hill slopes will prevent soil erosion which may solve the problem of shifting cultivation and out migration of people to towns. The north eastern region is bestowed with the most congenial climatic conditions for the production of under-exploited agricultural and horticultural crops. These agricultural and horticultural crops also provide many fold employment opportunities in agro-based industries, packaging, storage, preservation, canning and transportation.

Effects of stone pine (Pinus pinea L.) plantation spacing on initial growth and conelet entry into production

Stone pine (Pinus pinea L.) is well-known for its fruits, the pine nuts, which are considered a delicacy and are the most expensive dry fruits in the world. This fruit is harvested mostly from natural forests, and limited advances have been made for cultivating it as a fruit tree. This study was aimed at assessing the effect of plantation spacing and seed source on early fruiting of stone pine plantations for pine nut production in Chile. We tested two plantation spacings (5 × 5 and 7 × 7 m) and three local seed sources (Tanume, Cahuil and Chillan), selected according to the current cultivation practices in Chile in a multi-environment trial involving four sites. Plantations were repeatedly measured annually for 6 years after establishment. High environmental effects as well as interactions between environment and management techniques were observed for all growth variables. Spacing had effects on crown development at all sites except for the most limiting one, but not on height or root-collar diameter. The lowest density (7 × 7 m) was associated with the highest crown diameter. Effects of seed source varied across environments, being significant for growth variables in both environments with poor growth. Young plantations (5 and 6 years old) showed a trend that suggests a higher precocity of entry into fruiting and higher strobili production for the 7 × 7 m than for 5 × 5 m spacing. Our results suggest that plantations can be effective for stone pine fruit production in Chile, and the convenience of developing environment-specific plantation designs, considering spacing as a relevant parameter for orchard establishment and management.

Predicting the potential impact of climate change on the declining agroforestry species Borassus aethiopum Mart. in Benin: a mixture of geostatistical and SDM approach

Predicted effects of climate change (CC) on plant species distribution have raised concerns on their conservation and domestication. Appropriate stand density may enhance species ability to adapt to CC. Therefore, combining species distribution modeling (SDM) and spatial pattern of density should provide insightful information for setting conservation actions. We combined geostatistical and SDM techniques to assess (1) current tree density spatial pattern and its relationship with bioclimatic zone (humid, sub-humid, and semi-arid), land-use type (protected areas vs. agrosystems), and soil type (eight types), and (2) present-day and future distributions of suitable habitats under low-RCP4.5 and high-RCP8.5 emissions scenarios for Borassus aethiopum, a declining agroforestry palm in Benin. Data were obtained from 2880 one-ha plots. Semivariogram and kriging were used to model spatial patterns of density while Maximum Entropy was used for SDM. Tree density followed an isotropic spatial model with a range of 2.15 km, indicating extremely fragmented density pattern. Tree density was 8-times higher in protected areas (PAs, 68.6 ± 5.09 trees ha−1) than in agrosystems (8.4 ± 0.31 trees ha−1) and greater on ferruginous soils. Though 80% of the country was currently highly suitable with similar trend for PAs and agrosystems, future predictions showed major habitat loss (20–61%), particularly under RCP8.5. While changes were similar between PAs and agrosystems, the decrease in habitat suitability was pronounced in the semi-arid zone where the species is currently widely-distributed with higher abundance. Very weak link was found between present-day abundance and present-day and future distribution. It is concluded that B. aethiopum has a fragmented density pattern and will be sensitive to CC. In-situ and circa-situ conservations or orchards establishment were suggested depending on the projected changes and the bioclimatic zone. The approach used here is exemplary for other agroforestry tree species.

Low-volume irrigation systems influence Pratylenchus penetrans populations, root colonization by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, and replant establishment of sweet cherry

Abstract A four-year study was conducted to establish the effects of drip and microsprinkler irrigation systems on populations of Pratylenchus penetrans, early plant growth, and fruit yield of sweet cherry trees planted into soil previously used for apple production. The effects of irrigation type on root colonization by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, the abundance of soil microbial antagonists, soil biological suppressiveness, plant nutrition, and soil water content were also evaluated. Trees that received drip irrigation had larger trunk diameters than trees irrigated with microsprinklers throughout the first four years of orchard establishment, with greater total fruit yield also observed with drip irrigation in the fourth growing season. Populations of P. penetrans in soil and roots were smaller under drip irrigation than microsprinkler. Trees irrigated using drip emitters had higher per cent root colonization by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi than those irrigated by microsprinklers, and had a greater density of fine roots in soil. Drip irrigation also increased soil volumetric water content in the root zone, with soil moisture content often approaching or exceeding field water-holding capacity relative to that of microsprinklers. Overall, drip irrigation shows potential as a component of an integrated pest management strategy for reducing the effect of P. penetrans on newly planted sweet cherry.

Capture of Prionus laticollis (Drury, 1773) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) in New York, U.S.A., in traps baited with the sex pheromone of Prionus californicus Motschulsky, 1845

Prionus laticollis (Drury, 1773) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae), the broad necked root borer, is a known pest of numerous woody plant species. Larvae feed on and can severely damage roots and lower trunks, causing decline or structural weakness. It has been documented infesting commercial apple plantings in New York and New England, notably in recent years when infestations caused tree decline and death in an established orchard in Northport, New York. As with other Prionus species found in the U.S.A., males are attracted to all four isomers of 3,5-dimethyldodecanoic acid, the female-produced sex pheromone of the related species, P. californicus Motschulsky, 1845. We conducted field trials using a commercial mix of this pheromone to monitor occurrence, phenology and abundance of P. laticollis in several orchard and mixed hardwood habitats in New York from 2010–2015. Male beetles were readily captured in all locations using pitfall traps baited with a commercial synthetic pheromone blend of all possible isomers, with maximum seasonal totals of 112–145 beetles per site. The first beetles were captured from 19 June to 4 July, corresponding to 436–691 degree-days (base 10°C) from 1 January, depending on year and location. A 2012 lure comparison between the single-isomer natural pheromone and the four-isomer blend showed no significant differences in numbers of beetles captured. Beetle catch generally peaked within two weeks of initial flight each year, with most activity occurring throughout July. A distinct decrease in beetle numbers was noted at the Geneva location over the course of repeated annual trapping trials, possibly reflecting a negative impact on the local population.

Orchard establishment, precocity, and eco-physiological traits of several pomegranate cultivars

Abstract California faces many threats to food security, ranging from water limitations resulting from long-term drought to invasive pests and diseases. Major tree crops, such as citrus and avocado, are threatened by Citrus Greening and Fusarium Dieback, respectively, posing significant economic losses to growers and farm sustainability. Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) was previously a minor tree crop in California, but has become an important specialty crop, with planted area increased by 10-fold during the last twenty years, and is currently a $200 million annual industry. Pomegranate is not threatened so far by any pest or disease and is a drought- and salt-tolerant crop that can be cultivated on marginal land, which makes it an attractive alternative crop for the growers facing water and disease issues. For this investigation, two pomegranate field trials were initiated and followed over four years to evaluate site effects on establishment, precocity, photosynthesis and water relations to assist in determining appropriate cultivars for coastal versus inland climates. Traits measured included orchard establishment, photosynthesis, water potential, and flowering and yield traits. There were significant site and cultivar effects on many traits as well as site-cultivar interactions. The coastal trial grew significantly faster than the semi-arid inland site, however, the inland site was more productive than the coastal site for the first three years. Production during year four of establishment was similar at both sites.

Produzir maçãs, construir sentidos: gênese da pomicultura no Sul do Brasil

À luz da Sociologia Econômica, neste artigo analisamos aspectos da gênese da indústria brasileira de maçãs seguindo os passos da família Frey. Argumentamos que as atividades econômicas desenvolvidas pelos Frey contribuíram de forma determinante não apenas para a emergência do município de Fraiburgo (SC), como também para o desenvolvimento da moderna pomicultura brasileira. Longe da ideia do movimento espontâneo dos mercados, mostramos como a tomada de posição de um agente reconfigura o campo reconvertendo outros agentes e aproveitando uma janela de oportunidade da lei de incentivo ao reflorestamento que passa a fazer parte do universo dos possíveis. Seguimos a trajetória sócio-profissional de Willy Frey e apontamos sua habilidade em mobilizar uma rede de relações que lhe permitiu obter – tanto diretamente, como através de mediadores – intervenções favoráveis do Estado e recursos que foram essenciais à implantação de grandes pomares em Fraiburgo e, por conseguinte, à conversão da região Sul no primeiro e principal polo produtor de maçãs do Brasil.

Interaction between mycorrhization with Glomus intraradices and phosphorus in nursery olive plants

Abstract Mycorrhization of nursery plants with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) has become a usual practice in olive nurseries. Mycorrhizal associations increase plant tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses after transplanting by improving root system structure and development. Nutrient fertilization is also desirable because roots are confined in a limited amount of soil in the nursery containers. Since the olive tree is a species with low phosphorus requirements, and AMF can affect root system development and nutrient uptake, it is of interest to study the possible interaction between both factors. Three different experiments with potted plants growing in a shade house, and one experiment under field conditions, were preformed using young olive plants to explore these questions. Inoculation with Glomus intraradices did not affect the phosphorus level in the plants but reduced shoot growth in plants growing in phosphorus-rich soil. When the substrate was a soil poor in phosphorus, shoot growth of AMF-inoculated plants was similar to the control but root development was greater. Mycorrhization also increased flower number and quality in ‘Arbequina’. Shoot growth also was reduced when a sterilized substrate was used, suggesting that the use of natural soil is preferred. Since no mycorrhization effect was observed when inoculation was performed at the moment of transplanting to the field, inoculation during the nursery-growing period is recommended to improve plant quality for orchard establishment.

Ekonomska analiza podizanja zasada kruške

As a fruit crop, the pear is preferably grown and esteemed for its high utility value. Over recent decades, there have been great fluctuations in both quantity and quality of the pear fruit for a variety of reasons (obsolete growing technology, cultivar diversity, increased fire blight attacks, market instability, etc.). Given the favourable environmental conditions in Serbia and pear fruit shortage on domestic and foreign markets, producers' interest in pear production has increased in the last several years. The economic performance of a pear orchard is largely dependent on market conditions and pear marketing possibilities. Establishing a pear orchard requires a comprehensive analysis of agroeconomic conditions which govern both the choice of cultivars and orchard size. Therefore, the objective of this study was to analyse pear orchard establishment costs. Two cultivars were used i.e. 'Williams' and 'Santa Maria'. The results of the agroeconomic analysis show that the investment costs of establishing a 1 ha orchard amount to €8,975.75. Orchard management costs are €2,020.25 in the first year, €1,803.25 in the second year and €3,026.00 in the third year. Total investment costs associated with orchard establishment and management during the first three years are € 18,510.25. Management costs for a fully productive orchard are €4,657.00. The return on investment, along with profit, is achieved in the fifth year. If the intensive orchard produced a yield higher by 35% than the average yield projections, as typical of high-density production systems, the return on investment would be achieved in the fourth year.

Economic analysis of pear cultivation in Punjab

The study analyzed the cost structure, returns and efficiency of pear cultivation in Punjab. The results indicated that the expenditure on plant materials and planting costs have the largest share (20.40 per cent) during the establishment of pear orchards followed by digging and filling of pits (20.40 per cent). The annual operational/maintenance cost was low in the initial years, consistently increased during the subsequent years with the increase in the age of the orchard. Manures and fertilizers, intercultural operations, plant protection measures and training and pruning were the major components of operational cost. It emerged out that net annual returns received by the sample pear growers were quite high when they sold the produce themselves in the market than sale through a pre-harvest contractor. The benefit-cost ratio (BCR) greater than unity and Internal rate of return (IRR) greater than discount rate indicated that pear cultivation was economically viable in the study area. The BCR and IRR at 1.38 and 23.37 per cent, respectively in the case when output was sold by growers in the market directly were significantly higher as compared to 1.07 and 14.26 per cent for disposing-off output to the pre-harvest contractors.

Studies on differential susceptibility of ‘Rocha’ pear clones and Portuguese varieties of pear and apple to fire blight - tools for the sustainability of fruit chain production

Fire blight was officially identified for the first time in Portugal, in 2011, affecting pear cultivar ‘Rocha’, the most important Portuguese variety of pear, with high economic impact in the production chain and trade. Since then the bacterium has destroyed new orchards in several areas of pear and apple production in the country. Nurseries and phytogenetic resources of several important in vivo collections have also been affected and are considered endangered. Severe disease symptoms on branches, flowers and fruits are also present in several other autochthones pear and apple varieties, leading to the death of trees under the climatic and cultural conditions prevalent in Portugal. Coordinated efforts from all fruit production chain actors, including farmers, phytosanitary authorities and research institutions, produced tools to overcome disease impact and build economic and social sustainability of this activity. Within the frame of the national research project Proder InovPomo (2014-2017), the phytogenetic resources of two official collections of pear and apple trees were assessed towards susceptibility to fire blight disease, to select and preserve the individuals combining the best agronomic features as well as higher tolerance to fire blight. The results achieved are essential for selection and preservation of Portuguese phytogenetic resources and biodiversity, as well as for delivering high quality planting materials to farmers for the establishment of new orchards, especially in fruit production areas where fire blight disease is present.

Personal subjectivity impact reduction in choice of sour cherry varieties for orchard establishment using fuzzy system

This paper analyzes the problem of multi-criteria decision making methods (MCDM) when selecting the optimal type of sour cherry for planting. Choice of varieties in agriculture is a very complex problem and is usually characterized by the interaction of a large number of factors, including often limited resources and uncertain information (price, time). In this context, mathematical models can represent valuable support for farmers when deciding on the choice of crops and plants for planting. An integrated MCDM method is presented, along with expert knowledge and Fuzzy Interference System (FIS) for sour cherry varieties choosing. The proposed approach assists decision makers in complex calculations and diminishes the impact of personal subjectivity and perception in order to define the overall evaluation. Data is incorporated in proposed fuzzy system and validated by a numerical example.

Evaluation of agronomic and fruit quality traits of fig tree varieties (Ficus carica L.) grown in Mediterranean conditions

In this work, the agronomic behaviour and fruit quality of ten varieties of common fig were evaluated for the establishment of new commercial orchards destined for fresh consumption. The following traits were measured: annual yield, cumulative yield, trunk cross sectional area (TCSA) and yield efficiency of each variety, as well as weight, width, total soluble solids (TSS), pH, titratable acidity (TA) and maturation index (MI) of brebas and figs. The results show that ‘Banane’ and ‘Brown Turkey’ were the earliest to enter into production, and ‘Banane’ showed the highest annual yield in the 7th green (2014), with 76 kg/tree, followed by ‘Brown Turkey’ (57.6 kg/tree), ‘Cuello Dama Blanco’ (52 kg/tree) and ‘Colar Elche’ (39 kg/tree). On the other hand, 'Cuello Dama Blanco' and 'De Rey' exhibited the better organoleptic traits, with TSS and MI values ranged from 18.7 ºBrix and 203.3 MI (‘Cuello Dama Blanco’) to 20.4 ºBrix and 187.1 MI (‘De Rey’) for brebas and from 21.4 ºBrix and 278.7 (‘Cuello Dama Blanco’) to 23.3 ºBrix and 255.6 (‘De Rey’) for figs. This study will allow the fruit grower to select the most interesting and appropriate range of varieties based on market needs taking into account the ripening season (early, middle or late) and fruit colour (green, purple or black).

Uso potencial do novo herbicida indaziflam em pomares de banana

O controle de planta daninhas é um trato cultural essencial para o desenvolvimento adequado das bananeiras, entretanto, existem poucas opções de herbicidas registrados para a cultura. A partir deste contexto, o objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a seletividade e a eficiência do novo herbicida indaziflam em pré-emergência das plantas daninhas quando aplicado em jato dirigido às entrelinhas da cultura da banana, visando ao controle de Conyza bonariensis, Digitaria horizontalis e Cenchrus echinatus. O experimento foi realizado a campo no delineamento em blocos ao acaso, avaliando-se sete tratamentos com quatro repetições. Os tratamentos foram constituídos pelo indaziflam aplicado em pré-emergência nas doses de 50, 75, 100 e 125 g ha-1 i.a; pelo glyphosate aplicado em pós-emergência (1920 g ha-1 e.a); além de uma testemunha absoluta (sem capina e sem herbicida) e de uma testemunha capinada. O indaziflam nas doses de 75, 100 e 125 g ha-1 i.a proporcionou excelente controle de todas as plantas daninhas presentes por um período de 120 dias após a aplicação. Todas as doses de indaziflam aplicadas em pré-emergência das plantas daninhas na entrelinha da cultura da banana foram seletivas, não havendo nenhum sintoma de injúria visual ou efeito negativo na produtividade, o que indica que este novo herbicida apresenta potencial de utilização nesta cultura.

Development of a simple and rapid reverse transcription-loop mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP) assay for sensitive detection of Citrus tristeza virus

Tristeza is a devastating disease of citrus and reported to be present in almost all countries where it is cultivated as a commercial crop. The etiological agent of this disease is Citrus tristeza virus (CTV), a member of the genus Closterovirus with in the family Closteroviridae. The pathogen is restricted to the phloem tissue of the infected citrus plant and has a monopartite ss (+) RNA genome of ∼20kb size. Till date, there is no effective control measure available for this virus. Management of tristeza depends on destruction of CTV infected field plants, production of virus-free planting material for new orchard establishment and controlling viruliferous aphid vectors responsible for field spread of the pathogen. Availability of rapid diagnostic assay is essential for rapid and efficient detection of the pathogen. In the present investigation, RT-LAMP (reverse transcription-loop mediated isothermal amplification), a highly sensitive, robust and low cost assay has been developed for rapid detection of CTV in infected citrus plant samples. Based on conserved nucleotide sequences available in GenBank and specific to p25 gene (major coat protein gene) of predominant CTV isolates of India, four primer sets (CTV-F3, CTV-B3, CTV-FIP and CTV-BIP) ware designed and custom synthesized. The amplified LAMP products obtained after maintaining isothermal condition of 65°C for 60min duration could be visible easily with necked eyes in presence of SYBR Green I (100X). Subsequently, LAMP products were verified by electrophoresis run in 1.5% agarose gel. The RT-LAMP results obtained with known CTV isolates maintained in screen house of CCRI, Nagpur were validated using field samples and thereafter it was further confirmed by conventional RT-PCR (reveres transcription-polymerase chain reaction) assay. The sensitivity of CTV-RT-LAMP protocol standardized in the present study was 100 times more than conventional one step RT-PCR assay. It also has maximum detection limit up to 0.0001ng RNA in individual reaction mixture. CTV-RT-LAMP assay is a simple, sensitive, rapid and less costly detection technique. This assay could be used for CTV diagnosis in pathology laboratories having limited facility and resources and even by citrus nurseries situated in remote locations. As per our knowledge and available literature, the present study reports first time about the usefulness of RT-LAMP assay for detection of CTV from India.

Mitigation of global warming impact of fresh fruit production through climate smart management

The purpose of the study was to investigate the influence of management practices on the global warming impact of some perennial fruit crops. The global warming potential (GWP) of single operations during a fresh fruit production under local conventional management (Cmng) and the mitigation potential of introducing sustainable management practices (Smng) were assessed.A life cycle assessment analysis (ISO 14067) was performed for the whole life cycle of pilot apricot and peach orchards in Southern Italy (3 sites), taking into account greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions related to all annual agricultural operations, orchard establishment and removal. Results revealed that fertilization shared the highest fraction of GWP (from 22.4% to 60.5%) among all agricultural operations in both Cmng and Smng scenarios. The adoption of Smng had a reduction of GWP ranging from 1% to 17%. When accounting for SOC change (modelled through Roth-C) after the Smng application and for recycling the permanent biomass of trees at the end-of-life of the orchard, the GWP can become negative ranging from approx. −0.8 to −4.2 kg CO2 eq. per ton of fruit.The estimated average mitigation potential of adopting Smng practices was −2.7 t CO2 eq. ha−1 yr−1, and derives mostly from soil carbon storage capacity.The adoption of Smng practices could be considered within GHGs mitigation policies for the agricultural sector, if assessed at landscape level. Composting, as a possible scenario for the disposal of the tree biomass at the end of the orchard life cycle, results to have a higher GWP impact than burning it for home heating purposes. However, the improvement of soil quality and of the related ecosystem services of using compost for agricultural purposes should promote the spread of composting practices and the multiplication of composting facilities in Southern Italy.

SELECTION AND GENETIC GAIN IN THIRD-GENERATION SEEDLING SEED ORCHARD OF Acacia mangium

One of the purposes of seedling seed orchard (SSO) establishment is to produce genetically improved seeds. The amount of genetic gain in the SSO is determined from a series of selection involving within and between family selection in which the gain is generally achieved from the accumulated increases of gain in successive advanced generation breeding cycles. In present study, the amount of genetic gain was predicted in third-generation SSO of Acacia mangium after first within-plot selection using a retrospective selection index’s method. The SSO was established in Wonogiri, Central Java which was laid out in a randomized complete block design, 65 families, six replications, four trees-line plot and spacing of 2 m x 4 m. Actual within-plot selection was subjectively practiced in 40 months after planting. The observed traits for genetic gain prediction was height, diameter at breast height (dbh), and stem straightness using data collected at 24 months after planting. For calculating genetic gain based on multiple trait selection index, coefficient weight for each trait was then derived from the selection differential. The results of study showed that the first within plot selection was practiced mostly for imposing dbh rather than height or stem straightness with the relative gain was 6% for dbh, and 3% for both height and stem straightness. Using the derived coefficient weight, the expected genetic gain by family selection was found to be slightly lower than those predicted by within-plot selection at 3% for dbh, and 2% for both height and stem straightness.

Establishment of Nuclear Stock Collections for Apple and Pear in Latvia

Abstract Apples and pears are among the most important commercial fruit species grown in Latvia. Because of suitability to local climatic conditions, mainly domestic cultivars and cultivars originating in neighbouring countries are grown. The planting material of pome fruits produced and used for establishment of new orchards in Latvia corresponds to the Conformitas Agraria Communitatis standard due to the unavailability of nuclear stock. To establish virus-tested, experimental nuclear stock for apple and pear, one to two years old candidate plants were exposed to thermotherapy at +38 °C for 40 to 70 days. The mother trees and candidate plants before treatment were tested for the presence of the four most widespread pome fruit viruses by RT-PCR. The shoot tips of the heat-treated plants were grafted onto seedling rootstocks and were re-tested for the four viruses by RT-PCR during the next three to five vegetation seasons. Several plants of apple cultivars ‘Dace’, ‘Zarja Alatau’, ‘Rubin’, and ‘Ausma’ remained infected either with Apple chlorotic leaf spot virus, Apple stem growing virus or Apple stem pitting virus after the thermotherapy. Tests on woody indicators were carried out to determine possible presence of graft-transmittable organisms according to EPPO guidelines for the establishment of nuclear stock material for pome fruits.

Fruit-Growing in Latvia – Industry and Science

Abstract In all times, fruit trees for family use have been grown at Latvian farms. Yet these fruits obtained market value only after the land ownership reform in 19th century. This facilitated rapid area increase of different fruit crops, allowing supply with fruits not only the local market, but also for export to the largest cities of Russia. Especially fast development of fruit-growing was observed during the first independent republic (1919–1940). The demand for planting material increased, and plants were imported from Western Europe. Choice of unsuitable cultivars and rootstocks was the main reason of the massive orchard area loss during the following severe winters. After the Second World War, the Soviet powers supported only the establishment of large orchards for processing needs, 200-300 ha, which were unsuitable for the Latvian climate and terrain. At the same time, numbers of allotment gardens rapidly increased and part of their produce was sold also on the market. After regaining of independence and private property, interest in fresh fruit and berry production for market, as well as processing, renewed. It was hindered by lack of continuity in experience and knowledge. Diversity of terrain, soils and climate all demand considerate choice of suitable orchard location and cultivars. Direct use of foreign experience often led to failure. At present, development of the fruit industry is most of all hindered by lack of qualified specialists of different levels, which does not allow to establish an appropriate consulting system. Cooperation of growers for easier marketing also is developing too slowly. Insufficient economic and market research does not allow to balance the demand with increase of plantation area, especially for large-scale processing and export, so strategic guidance of the fruit industry is not possible. Development of fruit-growing is hindered also by a lack of continuous long-term support to horticultural science. As a result of research by the Institute of Horticulture: 1) new local breeding fruit crop cultivars were obtained and recommended for commercial orchards; variety testing including growing technologies was initiated in different regions of Latvia; 2) monitoring of harmful and favourable organisms was conducted in plantations, with development of a system for prognosis and control; and 3) research results were transferred to growers through practical recommendations, publications, seminars and demonstrations.

Seed storage conditions influence germination ofMoringa oleiferaLam. seed

Moringa oleifera seed is used as a food/fodder source, for oil extraction, water purification as well as for the treatment of various ailments. The demand for high quality seed is therefore on the rise. Unfortunately, seed ageing is one of the main problems responsible for low quality seed. Finding appropriate storage conditions to ameliorate deterioration is therefore essential. Moringa seed viability has been investigated by several authors with inconsistent results due to climatic conditions and storage methods differing in each country. In previous experiments the seed moisture content was also not adjusted before seed storage. The aim of this study was therefore to investigate the effect of moisture content, storage condition and storage period on viability of M. oleifera seed grown in South Africa. Seeds were sampled from ripe fruit/pods, which were harvested from an 8-year-old established orchard at the Hatfield Experimental Farm of University of Pretoria in South Africa. The seeds were divided in two sub-lots. In the first sub-lot, treatments were arranged according to a three factorial scheme with four temperatures (-19, 4, 20 and 30°C), three storage periods (6, 12 and 24 months), and two packaging (paper and aluminium) types. The second sub-lot was also arranged in three factorial schemes with four temperatures, three storage periods as mentioned above and three moisture contents (4, 8, 11%). At the end of each storage period, germination and viability (TTS) tests were performed on seed from each treatment combination according to ISTA methods. The behaviour of seed was evidently influenced by their moisture content and by their storage conditions. Moisture content above 8% influenced seed longevity negatively at 24 months of storage. Temperatures of -19 and 30°C were not favourable for seed storage.