Fennel Essential Oil Research Articles

Antifungal activity of the essential oils of some medicinal plants against human and plant fungal pathogens

The present study was conducted to assess the antifungal activity of essential oils of medicinal plants Mentha piperita (peppermint), Foeniculum vulgare, Satureja hortensis (Savory), Ferula asafoetida and Cuminum cyminum against Alternaria sp., Bipolaris sorokiniana and Acremonium sclerotigenum. The antifungal activity was evaluated by Broth Microdilution Method. Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MICs) and Minimum Fungicidal Concentration (MFCs) of the essential oils were compared with Amphotricin B and Captan as standard drug. MIC values for all essential oils were between 1 to 8 mg/mL. MIC value of Fennel essential oil was comparable to MFC value obtained from fungicide Captan. Peppermint essential oil exhibited maximum inhibitory and fungicide activity in concentrations of 2 mg/ml and 4 mg/ml against Alternaria sp. The essential oil was more effective than Fennel against Bipolaris, but MFC values of both essential oils were 4 mg/ml. C. cyminum displayed less susceptibility against all of the fungi. Regarding our finding, peppermint and Fennel oil seem to be a promising solution to control plant diseases.

Piglets’ Intestinal Microflora Fed with a Plants Mix

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of a plant mix (bilberry, black currant, quince, peppermint and fennel essential oil) inclusion into the diets of piglets (18-45 kg) on intestinal microflora equilibrium. An experiment was performed on 8 castrated hybrid TOPIGS (18.69±1.25 kg) divided in 2 groups (C and E). The piglets were kept in an experimental house in individual metabolic cages. Compared to the conventional diet (18% crude protein and 3214 kcal/kg metabolic energy) of group C, the diet of E group had included 789 mg mixture of plants/kg feed. At the final of the experiment the piglets were slaughtered and digesta samples were collected from jejunum and ileum for microbiological analysis. For jejunum, a significant (P<0.05) decrease of Staphylococci spp. (log10 CFU/g) concentration in E group was noticed correlated strongly negative with a statistically significant (P<0.05) increasing concentration of Lactobacillus spp. (log10 CFU/g) concentration. The results were similar for ileum. This dietary mixture of plants had some effects on microbial population of piglets’ jejunum and ileum to help positively the intestinal changes of microbiota.

Bazı tıbbi bitkilerden elde edilen uçucu yağların kimyasal bileşenlerinin belirlenmesi ve Börülce tohum böceği, Callosobruchus maculatus erginlerine karşı fümigant insektisidal aktivitelerinin belirlenmesi

Chemical composition and fumigant insecticidal
 activities of essential oils obtained from oregano (Origanum syriacum L.), lavender (Lavandula angustifolia L.), sage (Salvia officinalis L.,), fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) and laurel (Laurus nobilis L.) plants were investigated against the adults of
 cowpea weevil, Callosobruchus maculatus (F.) (Coleoptera: Bruchidae). Based on GC-MS
 analysis, total number of compounds determined in oregano, lavender, sage,
 fennel and laurel essential oils were 25, 33, 23, 23, 42, respectively.
 Carvacrol (66.66%), trans-anethol
 (79.17%), 1,8-cineole (50.0%), camphor (30.46%) and linalyl acetate (35.66%)
 were found as the most abundant compounds, respectively. Bioassay results
 revealed that essential oils, at 30.0 or 40.0 µg ml-1 air, resulted
 in 100% adult mortality of C. maculatus.
 Insecticidal activity was increased in response to increased concentration of
 essential oil. Among the essential oils tested, oregano showed the highest
 fumigant toxicity at relatively lower concentration (30.0 µg ml-1).
 Complete adult mortality (100%) caused by fennel, laurel, sage and lavender
 essential oils at the concentrations of 40.0 µg ml-1 air. The LC50
 and LC90 values for each essential oil were estimated by using
 probit analysis. The lowest LC50 value was estimated for sage
 essential oil (8.79 µg ml-1) followed by oregano (11.17 µg ml-1),
 lavender (11.64 µg ml-1), laurel (13.59 µg ml-1) and
 fennel (17.46 µg ml-1), respectively. The results revealed that
 plant essential oils might be used in research aiming the development of new
 environmental friendly control agents against stored-product pests such as
 cowpea weevil.

Encapsulation of β-carotene in emulgels-based delivery systems formulated with sweet fennel oil

An emulgel-based delivery system formulated with sweet fennel essential oil was developed for the encapsulation of β-carotene. Emulgels were stabilized by using a mixed emulsifier system consisting of fumed silica particles (Aerosil 200) and a green surfactant (Amidet-N). The influence of the microfluidization conditions on mean droplet sizes and the effect of the fumed silica concentration on the physical stability and rheological properties of emulgels were investigated. The emulgel that presented better physical stability was that formulated with 5 g/100 g fumed silica due to the role of Aerosil 200 as Pickering stabilizer and its enhanced rheological properties. The resulting β-carotene-loaded emulgels successfully protected the encapsulated bioactive ingredient throughout the storage period.

Fennel oil: A promising antifungal agent against biofilm forming fluconazole resistant Candida albicans causing vulvovaginal candidiasis

AimTo screen the antimicrobial activities of some plant essential oils against clinical isolates of C. albicans causing vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC) and to investigate the antifungal effect of the most active one against planktonic and sessile cells compared to fluconazole. MethodsScreening of biofilm production by C. albicans causing VVC was performed by tissue culture plate method. The antifungal susceptibility of fluconazole was performed by disk diffusion method. Antifungal activities of nine essential oils were screened against strong biofilm-producer, fluconazole-resistant or dose-dependently susceptible clinical isolates and Candida albicans ATCC 10,231 by well diffusion method. Determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of fennel essential oil and fluconazole against planktonic and sessile cells were performed by microdilution methods. Determination of the combined antimicrobial activity of fennel oil and fluconazole was evaluated by checkerboard microdilution assay. ResultsFrom 19 C. albicans strains, 10/19 showed strong ability to form biofilms. None of the tested clinical isolates was sensitive to fluconazole. Fennel oil had significantly higher antifungal activities against tested C. albicans compared with other tested oils (P = 0.000). The MICs of fennel oil for planktonic cells ranged from 0.78% to 6.25% with MIC50 of 3.12% and MIC90 of 6.25%, while concentrations ranging between 6.25% and 25% resulted in 50% biofilm reduction. Synergy or addition between fennel oil and fluconazole were detected against 7/11 strains, while no antagonism was detected. ConclusionFennel oil alone or in combination with fluconazole could provide a promising approach to the management of VVC caused by drug-resistant strains.

Fennel main constituent, trans‑anethole treatment against LPS‑induced acute lung injury by regulation of Th17/Treg function.

Fennel, commonly used in traditional Chinese medicine, is known as Foeniculum vulgare Mill. And its clinical application has been shown to target many biological systems including gastroenterology, endocrinology, gynecology and respiratory. The main constituent of the fennel essential oil is trans-anethole, which has been described to have anti-inflammatory and antibacterial activities. The aim of the present study was to define the anti-inflammatory influence in acute lung injury (ALI)-bearing mice. For 3 days, ALI-bearing mice were induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) suspension in normal saline (24 mg/kg). On the fourth day, the trans-anethole was administrated (36.4, 72.8 or 145.6 mg/kg) as well as dexamethasone (5 mg/kg) once per day for 7 consecutive days in mice. Following the completion of drug administration mice were sacrificed. Hematoxylin and eosin staining was performed in the lung paraffin section, for comparisons between monocyte and eosinophil cells in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. The relative gene expression of interleukin (IL)-10 and IL-17 was determined by reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction. These two cytokines and the proportion of T helper 17 (Th17) cells and T regulatory (Treg) cells were determined by flow cytometry. The main constituent of fennel, trans-anethole, eliminated LPS-induced histopathological changes, decreased the number of inflammatory cells and resulted in a notable reduction in IL-17 mRNA expression. In addition, trans-anethole increased IL-10 mRNA expression in isolated lung tissues and resulted in a marked elevation in Treg cells and reduction in Th17 cells in spleen tissues. The results of the present study indicated that the main constituent of fennel, trans-anethole may be an anti-inflammation component, which influenced the regulation of Th17/Treg responses. Therefore, this medicinal herb may support a healing effect on diseases of inflammatory.

Anethole Inhibits the Proliferation of Human Prostate Cancer Cells via Induction of Cell Cycle Arrest and Apoptosis

Prostate cancer-associated mortality is increasing at an alarming rate, which highlights the inevitability for unearthing novel agent for the management of this disease. Anethole, a major constituent of Foeniculum vulgare (fennel) essential oil, is widely used in folk medicine; it possesses anti-oxidant, antiinflammatory, anti-proliferative and tumoricidal potentialities. The current research was conducted to assess the impact of anethole on prostate cancer cell line, PC- 3, and to delineate the molecular mechanism of action. To achieve this aim, the growth-inhibitory effect of anethole was evaluated by MTT assay. Apoptotic death and cell cycle analyses were assessed by flow cytometry and alterations in gene expression were investigated by qPCR and Western blot analyses. The observations indicated that anethole inhibited proliferation, clonal growth and migration of PC-3 cells. It also suppressed growth of PC-3 derived cancer stem cells (tumorspheres). Pro-apoptotic potential of anethole was accompanied by generation of ROS, permeabilization of the mitochondrial and lysosomal membranes, activation of caspase-3 and -9, DNA damage, PARP cleavage and induction of Bax/Bcl-2 protein ratio. Further, anethole induced G2/M phase arrest, downregulation of cyclins D1, CDK-4 and c-Myc proteins and upregulation of p21 and p27. Anethole suppressed nuclear localization of NF-κB protein and downregulated transcription of NF-κB-dependent genes. Overall, the above findings highlight the effectiveness of anethole as a potential candidate for prostate cancer therapy.

Evaluation the Effects of Foeniculum vulgare Essence on Behavioral-Motor Disorders of Parkinson’s Disease induced by Reserpine in Ovariectomized and Non Ovariectomized Rats

Background: Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common disorder that causes damage to the central nervous system. It mainly affects the motor system and is generally diagnosed with the loss of dopaminergic neurons. Fennel plant (Foeniculum Vulgare Mill) belongs to the flowering plant of the fennel Apiaceae family. It is a medicinal plant that is commonly used by the tribes in Iran. Fennel plant has an estrogenic effect. Objectives: The intention of this study was to analyze the effects of various doses of foeniculum vulgare mill essence on behavioral motor dysfunction in reserpine-induced model of PD in ovariectomized and non ovariectomized rats. Methods: To create a model of Parkinson’s drug reserpine subcutaneously at a rate of 3 mg was used. Rats were surgically ovariectomized. Ten groups, each consisting of 8 rats, were used. The authors studied a total of 48 ovariectomized rats. Essential oil of fennel (50,100,200 mg/kg) were used for treatment for 5 days. After the 5 days of behavioral and motor tests were performed, the amount of estrogen was measured. Results: In this study, rats were ovariectomized and fennel essential oils doses (50, 100, 200 mg/kg) significantly increased amounts of estrogen. The motor disorders of the treated groups were reduced. Furthermore, the non-ovariectomized groups were treated with essential oils of fennel. The amount of estrogen increased and motor activity as well as behavior had improved in the control groups. Conclusions: The present study affirms that essential oils of fennel improve Parkinson’s in animal models. Further studies are needed to demonstrate the possible effects of essential oils of fennel on individuals with Parkinson’s and postmenopausal women.

Effect of powder sizes, pH of water, ultrasound and method of distillation on extraction of fennel essential oil

The essential oils are frequently used in food processing industry, perfumery, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. Most of the oils obtained by steam distillation and water distillation. It is necessary to specify the best conditions of essential oils production to get much more major compound(s) and higher yield oil. So, fennel oil was selected in this study. The objective of this work was to identify the effect of powder’s particle size, pH of water, method of distillation and using ultrasound on extraction of fennel essential oil (and its major constituent, anethole). We used a statistical method called D-optimal Design that appointed pH, particle size and method for each assay. First, the seeds powder distillated directly. In the second series seeds were placed in an ultrasonic apparatus for 30 minutes. The essential oils were subsequently isolated by two methods, hydro-distillation and steam-distillation in different sizes and pH in Clevenger apparatus. Gas chromatography was used to determine the essential oil composition. Finally, optimum conditions according to the statistical results are as follows: Method: steam distillation, and mesh size: 50. So it shows that steam distillation is more efficiently than water distillation.

Botanical oils as eco-friendly alternatives for controlling the rice weevil Sitophilus oryzae

The rice weevil Sitophilus oryzae is a major stored grain pest infesting many grains in storage mainly wheat, rice and maize. Toxic effects of certain extracted botanical essential oils (EOs) were evaluated against the adults of Sitophilus oryzae (Linnaeus) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Bioassays were carried out by fumigation and guide tables were presented to show the effective range of concentrations of each of the evaluated essential oils and their corresponding mean number of responded insects. The essential oil of fennel (seeds) (Foeniculum vulgare) did not show any toxic effect up to the concentration of 300 µl/370 ml air and Common Sage (Marmaria leaves) (Salvia officinalis)up to 250 µl/370 ml air during the first 48 hrs then they showed a very weak effect. The essential oil of spearmintleaves(Mentha spicata L.) was the utmost toxic and had a lowest LC50s calculated by 4.43, 3.88 and 3.27 µl/370 ml air after different exposure periods of 24, 48 and 72 hrs, respectively, followed by the essential oil of clove(Syzygium aromaticum) (382.62, 79.95 and 9.23 µl/370 ml air, in respect). In this concern, clove showed its higher toxicity after 72 hrs. The mortality of the exposed adults to EOs increased with the increase of concentrations and time of exposure to each one. The calculated values of toxicity index showed that the essential oil of mint was the most toxic EO (100%) followed by clove (35.43%). Moreover, log (dose)/N.E.D. (response) (Ld-p) regression lines for certain bio assayed botanical essential oils against S. oryzae were also illustrated. Therefore, it could be recommended that the essential oils of spearmint leavesand clove buds could be used to control the rice weevil, S. oryzae.

Ovarian cytoarchitectual changes following fennel ingestion in senile diabetic albino rat

Introduction: Postmenopausal obesity sounds an alarm for women’s health, since it serves as a predominant risk factor for many chronic diseases leading to reduced life expectancy and increased health problems.The relation between menopausal status and diabetes mellitus remains controversial. Reproductive tract dysfunction is a recognized consequence of diabetes obesity syndrome (DOS). Therefore, a possible association between obesity, diabetes mellitus and abnormalities of female reproductive function in several respects may occur.Nowadays traditional medicinal plants and spices are commonly used for their possible effects as hypoglycaemic, antidiabetic and folliculogenic agents instead of using synthetic drugs.Aim: The objective of this study was to evaluate the therapeutic implication of fennel ingestion in ovarian changes in diabetically induced senile rats.Materials and Methods: A total of 24 senile female albino rats were divided into 4 equal groups: control group, fennel oil receiving group, diabetic group and diabetic/fennel oil ingested group. Treatments were continued for 8 weeks, then ovarian samples were collected from all rats for histological, immunohistochemical and ultra-structural studies. Blood glucose levels were measured to confirm hyperglycemia and to follow the disease progression. Serum analyses for hormonal assay were also estimatedResults: STZ injection caused typical ovarian follicular cysts of variable sizes together with elevation of blood glucose level. Fennel oil administration to diabetes-induced group showed some amelioration in the ovarian structure and blood glucose level.Conclusion: Fennel essential oil could ameliorate diabetes with its use as a fertility enhancing agent. Fennel has folliculogenesis effect consistent with its use in folk medicine as a fertility enhancing agent.

Essential oils of culinary herbs and spices display agonist and antagonist activities at human aryl hydrocarbon receptor AhR

Essential oils (EOs) of culinary herbs and spices are used to flavor, color and preserve foods and drinks. Dietary intake of EOs is significant, deserving an attention of toxicologists. We examined the effects of 31 EOs of culinary herbs and spices on the transcriptional activity of human aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), which is a pivotal xenobiotic sensor, having also multiple roles in human physiology. Tested EOs were sorted out into AhR-inactive ones (14 EOs) and AhR-active ones, including full agonists (cumin, jasmine, vanilla, bay leaf), partial agonists (cloves, dill, thyme, nutmeg, oregano) and antagonists (tarragon, caraway, turmeric, lovage, fennel, spearmint, star anise, anise). Major constituents (>10%) of AhR-active EOs were studied in more detail. We identified AhR partial agonists (carvacrol, ligustilide, eugenol, eugenyl acetate, thymol, ar-turmerone) and antagonists (trans-anethole, butylidine phtalide, R/S-carvones, p-cymene), which account for AhR-mediated activities of EOs of fennel, anise, star anise, caraway, spearmint, tarragon, cloves, dill, turmeric, lovage, thyme and oregano. We also show that AhR-mediated effects of some individual constituents of EOs differ from those manifested in mixtures. In conclusion, EOs of culinary herbs and spices are agonists and antagonists of human AhR, implying a potential for food-drug interactions and interference with endocrine pathways.

Efficacy of sea fennel (Crithmum maritimum L., Apiaceae) essential oils against Culex quinquefasciatus Say and Spodoptera littoralis (Boisd.)

The effective management of insect pests and vectors still represents a major challenge in current entomology. Culex quinquefasciatus Say is a key vector of lymphatic filariasis, Rift Valley fever, West Nile, St. Louis encephalitis and Western equine encephalitis virus. Recently, the importance of the eco-friendly control of C. quinquefasciatus larval population using plant-borne biopesticides, including essential oils (EOs), has been stressed. Spodoptera littoralis (Boisd.) also known as tobacco cutworm, is one of the most destructive moth agricultural pests in tropic and sub-tropic regions. Despite the fact that sea fennel (Crithmum maritimum L., Apiaceae) is considered as a promising biosaline crop, its potential for commercial cultivation has not yet been exploited. Notably, it has been reported that in coastal marine environments insect pests stay away from sea fennel plants. This aromatic plant is endowed with secretory structures as ducts and vittae storing volatile compounds. In the present study, the chemical composition of sea fennel essential oils from three different EO accessions, namely France (Brittany), Central and South Italy (Marche and Sicily regions) have been analysed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS), and their toxicity against larvae of Cx. quinquefasciatus and S. littoralis was evaluated. Selected pure compounds from the essential oils mentioned above were also tested. The essential oils showed notable variability in chemical composition, being dominated by dillapiole and γ-terpinene (French EO), limonene and γ-terpinene (central Italy EO) and thymol methyl ether and γ-terpinene (Sicilian EO). As found out, the significantly most efficient essential oils were obtained from the seeds and aerial parts of plants of the French region. For these EOs, LD50 values were estimated as 62.3 and 71.7μg/larva for S. littoralis, respectively, and LC50 as 13.7 and 15.6μl/L for C. quinquefasciatus larvae, respectively. γ-Terpinene and myristicin were the most effective on C. quinquefasciatus larvae showing LC50 values <17μl/L. Overall, these findings shed light on the insecticidal potential of C. maritimum EO against mosquitoes and agricultural pests, allowing to identify the most effective chemotype, and to stimulate cultivation of this species as a source of botanical insecticides.

The effect of fennel essential oil in combination with antibiotics on Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated from carriers

An increase in the number of staphylococcal infections and carriers among medical staff has forced us to seek more and more effective antibacterial agents. Bacteria from the Staphylococcus genus possessing different mechanisms of resistance are the cause of nosocomial infections. The objective of our investigations was susceptibility of S. aureus strains isolated from nasal vestibule of medical students to fennel essential oil. The GC–MS analysis of fennel essential oil revealed eleven constituents among which a majority of trans-anethole (80%) was found. The D-tests showed iMLSB (80%), cMLSB and MSB (10%) resistant phenotypes of S. aureus. The S. aureus isolates were intermediate to mupirocin (45%). Fennel essential oil increased the inhibition zone around cefoxitin, mupirocin, co-trimoxazole and ciprofloxacin with statistical significance. Our research showed that the fennel essential oil in combination with mupirocin may be considered as a natural alternative in eradication of S. aureus with iMLSB, cMLSB, MSB resistant phenotypes and is able to decrease the growth rate of antibiotic resistance.

Protection of Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus from aflatoxin B1 toxicity by dietary supplementation with Fennel essential oil and Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Significant losses in ration industry especially aquaculture resulting from aflatoxins. The effect of supplementing Nile tilapia diet with Fennel essential oil (FEO) with or without Saccharomyces cerevisiae on negative impacts of aflatoxin B1, AFB1 (200ppb) for one month was studied. Two hundred and forty Nile tilapia of 26.6±0.12g (mean±SE) were divided into eight groups (30 fish/group) with three replicates. G1 was fed on a basal diet only (D1), while G2 was fed on AFB1 (200ppb) contaminated diet (D2). G3 and G4 were fed on FEO supplemented diets (1ml/kg diet) with or without AFB1 (200ppb) (D3 and D4), respectively. G5 and G6 were fed on S. cerevisiae supplemented diets (1g/kg diet) with or without AFB1 (200ppb) (D5 and D6), respectively. G7 and G8 were fed on supplemented diets with mixture from FEO (1ml/kg diet) and S. cerevisiae (1g/kg diet) with or without AFB1 (200ppb) (D7 and D8), respectively. The phagocytic assay, protein profile, serum alanine aminotranferase (ALT) and creatinine were measured at the end of feeding period (30days). The oxidative stress biomarker as catalase activity and malondialdehyde (MDA) and AFB1 residues in liver and musculature were also measured. At the end of feeding period, the phagocytic activity, total blood proteins and catalase activity showed lower significant values in AFB1 exposed fish. Also, AFB1 induced significant rising in levels of ALT, creatinine and MDA with higher residual levels recorded. Meanwhile, the aflatoxicated groups treated with FEO or S. cerevisiae or their mixture revealed significant improvement of mostly all the measured parameters. FEO can successfully relieve AFB1 noxious effects compared with S. cerevisiae in Nile tilapia.

Cytotoxicity of the Essential Oil of Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) from Tajikistan.

The essential oil of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) is rich in lipophilic secondary metabolites, which can easily cross cell membranes by free diffusion. Several constituents of the oil carry reactive carbonyl groups in their ring structures. Carbonyl groups can react with amino groups of amino acid residues in proteins or in nucleotides of DNA to form Schiff’s bases. Fennel essential oil is rich in anise aldehyde, which should interfere with molecular targets in cells. The aim of the present study was to investigate the chemical composition of the essential oil of fennel growing in Tajikistan. Gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric analysis revealed that the main components of F. vulgare oil were trans-anethole (36.8%); α-ethyl-p-methoxy-benzyl alcohol (9.1%); p-anisaldehyde (7.7%); carvone (4.9%); 1-phenyl-penta-2,4-diyne (4.8%) and fenchyl butanoate (4.2%). The oil exhibited moderate antioxidant activities. The potential cytotoxic activity was studied against HeLa (human cervical cancer), Caco-2 (human colorectal adenocarcinoma), MCF-7 (human breast adenocarcinoma), CCRF-CEM (human T lymphoblast leukaemia) and CEM/ADR5000 (adriamycin resistant leukaemia) cancer cell lines; IC50 values were between 30–210 mg L−1 and thus exhibited low cytotoxicity as compared to cytotoxic reference compounds.

Characterization of the key odorants of fennel essential oils of different regions using GC-MS and GC-O combined with partial least squares regression.

The key odorants and the aroma profile of six fennel essential oils from different regions were investigated by using gas chromatography-olfactometry (GC-O), gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and sensory evaluation. A total of 30 volatile compounds were determined by GC-O with aroma extract dilution analysis (AEDA) and the odor activity values (OAV) of them were calculated. Among these compounds, α-pinene, α-phellandrene, limonene, α-cubebene, β-caryophyllene, estragole, α-humulene, trans-anethole, δ-cadinene and p-anisaldehyde contributed greatly to the aroma of fennel essential oil due to their high flavor dilution (FD) factors and high OAVs. The aroma of fennel essential oils was described by 7 sensory terms as spicy, woody, grassy, floral, musty, sweet and green, and was correlated to the key odorants by partial least squares regression (PLSR). It was showed that spicy, woody, grassy, musty and green attributes were covaried well with aroma compounds. In addition, hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) was used to find out the similarities among different samples and the result indicated that three main groups were identified.

Morphogenetic, Ontogenetic and Diurnal Variability in Antimicrobial Activity of Bitter Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Miller var. vulgare) Essential Oil

Abstract: Background: There has been considerable interest in antimicrobial activity of plant essential oils in recent years. Objectives: This research was carried out to determine morphogenetic, ontogenetic and diurnal variability in antimicrobial activity of bitter fennel essential oil. Methods: To specify morphogenetic variability, leaf and root-bulb-stalk samples taken at pre-, full and post-flowering, flower samples picked at full flowering and seed samples gathered at two seed growth stages were used. For ontogenetic and diurnal variability, whole plant samples were taken at pre-, full and post-flowering and at 9:00 am, 1:00 pm and 5:00 pm. A total of 10 microorganisms have been used to determine antimicrobial activity of essential oils with disc-diffusion and microdilution broth methods. Results: The highest inhibitory effect among leaf essential oils was observed from post-flowering samples, but essential oils of root-bulb-stalk samples of pre-flowering produced the highest antimicrobial activity. Whole plant essential oils of post-flowering samples produced higher antimicrobial activity than those of pre- and full flowering samples. Generally, inhibitory effect of seed essential oils extracted at the beginning of seed formation was higher than those of seed maturity. Daily harvesting time caused no effect on antimicrobial activity of essential oils of whole plant samples. Conclusion: The present study reveals that antimicrobial activity of bitter fennel essential oil significantly vary based on plant parts and growth stages. Key words: Antibacterial, Antifungal, Growth inhibition, Minimal inhibition concentration, Volatile oil.

Formulation and optimization of emulsions based on bitter fennel essential oil and EO/BO block copolymer surfactant

The influence of EO/BO block copolymer surfactant concentration in the range (1–5% (m/m)) and emulsification time on the emulsion stability and droplet size distribution of bitter fennel essential oil-in-water emulsions has been studied.Essential oils are promising material to be used for emulsion formulation with applications in cosmetics, food industry and agrochemicals. In the latter field these emulsions may be used as matrices for pesticides, where essential oils play the role of an eco-friendly solvent.A two-factor central composite design was conducted in order to optimize the emulsion formulation and processing. Emulsion stability has been studied as function of ageing time, by multiple light scattering (Turbiscan Lab-expert, Formulaction) and laser diffraction (Mastersizer X, Malvern). The surface response methodology allowed us to obtain a formulation comprising minimum droplet size and maximum stability by using a single step rotor/stator homogenization process.Creaming turned out to be the main destabilization mechanism. In order to improve emulsion stability the influence of high pressure homogenization (M110P, Microfluidics, MA, USA) and addition of a weighting agent (rosin gum) was studied. Although lower droplet sizes were obtained in both cases (D3,2 were in the range 0.30–0.35μm), emulsions were more unstable maybe due to Ostwald ripening phenomena.

Development and In Vitro Assessment of Nanoemulsion for Delivery of Ketoconazole Against Candida albicans

Nanoemulsions (NEs) applied as drug delivery systems are particularly convenient to increase solubility and the release of the drug with poor water solubility in water. The aim of this study was to prepare NEs containing Ketoconazole (KTZ), a poorly water-soluble drug, characterize them and evaluate their antifungal activity against Candida albicans. The solubility of KTZ was studied in different essential oils. Clove and sweet fennel essential oils were chosen as the oily phase and Pluronic F127® and Cremophor RH40® as the non-ionic surfactants to take part in the water phase. Formulations were prepared by a high-energy emulsification method and they were evaluated in terms of physical appearance, mean droplet size and polydispersity index. The NEs were successfully obtained and the droplets mean size was less than 100 nm. To verify efficacy of the NEs, the viability and the growth of C. albicans were measured by the propidium iodide influx analysis and by counting colony-forming units (CFU/mL). The results showed that the loss of the fungal membrane integrity and growth decrease were obtained after the treatment with the KTZ NEs containing clove oil (NEs-CL-KTZ) and with the free KTZ. However, the number of non-viable cells were significantly (p &lt; 0.01) higher on the cells treated with NEs-CL-KTZ compared to the free KTZ. The In Vitro drug release profile demonstrated that NEs-CL-KTZ formulation could increase more than nine times the release of KTZ when compared to KTZ cream. To conclude, NEs-CL-KTZ tested in the present study has demonstrated the most efficient formulation for the treatment of C. albicans infections.