Equine Veterinary Research Articles

Effect of video angle on detection of induced front limb lameness in horses

BackgroundLameness examinations are commonly performed in equine medicine. Advancements in digital technology have increased the use of video recordings for lameness assessment, however, standardization of ideal video angle is not available yielding videos of poor diagnostic quality. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of video angle on the subjective assessment of front limb lameness. A randomized, blinded, crossover study was performed. Six horses with and without mechanically induced forelimb solar pain were recorded using 9 video angles including horses trotting directly away and towards the video camera, horses trotting away and towards a video camera placed to the left and right side of midline, and horses trotting in a circle with the video camera placed on the inside and outside of the circle. Videos were randomized and assessed by three expert equine veterinarians using a 0–5 point scoring system. Objective lameness parameters were collected using a body-mounted inertial sensor system (Lameness Locator®, Equinosis LLC). Interobserver agreement for subjective lameness scores and ease of grading scores were determined.ResultsInduction of lameness was successful in all horses. There was excellent agreement between objective lameness parameters and subjective lameness scores (AUC of the ROC = 0.87). For horses in the “lame” trials, interobserver agreement was moderate for video angle 2 when degree of lameness was considered and perfect for video angle 2 and 9 when lameness was considered as a binary outcome. All other angles had no to fair agreement. For horses in the “sound” trials, interobserver agreement was perfect for video angle 5. All other video angles had slight to moderate agreement.ConclusionsWhen video assessment of forelimb lameness is required, a video of the horse trotting directly towards the video camera at a minimum is recommended. Other video angles may provide supportive information regarding lameness characteristics.

Equine worming protocols: tackling the increasing problem of anthelmintic resistance

Anthelmintic resistance is a growing global problem in the equine sector. Only three classes of anthelmintics are authorised for use against equine nematodes, and resistance to all of them has been reported in the UK. Resistance to praziquantel, which is effective against equine tapeworms, has also been reported. The use of anthelmintics therefore needs to be restricted, and adoption of diagnostic-led targeted treatment regimens is essential to protect efficacy and slow further development of resistance. This article discusses current recommendations regarding helminth treatment and control in horses and summarises Controlling ANTiparasitic resistance in Equines Responsibly and British Equine Veterinary Association guidelines published in 2024.

Horse owner perceptions of equine veterinary nursing roles in the United Kingdom.

Registered (equine) veterinary nurses (R(E)VNs) typically provide few client-facing services. Better utilising R(E)VN skills could help address workforce shortages, improve morale and benefit patient health. The aim of this study was to explore horse owner perceptions of R(E)VN roles. An online cross-sectional survey of horse owners gathered data on their understanding of R(E)VN roles, their experiences of R(E)VNs their openness to further R(E)VN services and perceived facilitators of and barriers to such services. Participants were recruited via practices, social media and snowball sampling. Descriptive analysis of the quantitative data and manifest content analysis of the qualitative data were conducted. Three hundred and forty-seven useable responses were received. Eighty-one percent (282/347) had heard the term R(E)VN. Most talked positively about their experiences with R(E)VNs. Eighty-seven percent (285/326) were open to an R(E)VN visiting their horse under the direction of a veterinary surgeon, with more than 90% being extremely or somewhat comfortable with R(E)VN visits for bandaging and suture removal. It is unclear how closely respondents' perceptions reflect those of the wider UK horse owner population. Horse owners appear to be open to further nursing services, with key procedures such as bandaging being a potential starting point. Understanding the career goals of the individual nurses and the needs of the practice will be key to the successful implementation of these services.

Stakeholder perceptions of thoroughbred yearling sales endoscopy in Australia: can we do better?

To identify thoroughbred industry stakeholders' views on the yearling sales endoscopy in Australia. Semi-structured qualitative group interviews with equine veterinarians, thoroughbred breeders and yearling purchasers. Twenty-nine experienced thoroughbred industry stakeholders participated in online focus groups: (1) equine veterinarians involved in yearling endoscopy; (2) thoroughbred breeders; and (3) yearling buyers. The focus groups were audio and video recorded and digital whiteboards were available. Data was transcribed, live-coded and analysed thematically. The main themes identified included the uncertainty surrounding the relationship between yearling laryngeal function and future performance, especially the significance of yearlings with grade 3 out of 5 laryngeal function; interobserver variability in the laryngeal function grade assigned by veterinarians to the same endoscopic exam; and the presence of intra-horse variability in laryngeal function over different time points. Stakeholders raised multiple concerns about the current yearling sales endoscopy process in Australia. Recommendations to address these concerns include further investigation into the race performance of yearlings identified with grade 3 laryngeal function; training of veterinarians to reduce inter-observer variability; and the need to determine the most appropriate grading system to use in yearlings. Future research should evaluate the significance of intra-horse variability in a yearling population.

Comparison of veterinarians and a deep learning tool in the diagnosis of equine ophthalmic diseases.

The aim was to compare ophthalmic diagnoses made by veterinarians to a deep learning (artificial intelligence) software tool which was developed to aid in the diagnosis of equine ophthalmic diseases. As equine ophthalmology is a very specialised field in equine medicine, the tool may be able to help in diagnosing equine ophthalmic emergencies such as uveitis. In silico tool development and assessment of diagnostic performance. A deep learning tool which was developed and trained for classification of equine ophthalmic diseases was tested with 40 photographs displaying various equine ophthalmic diseases. The same data set was shown to different groups of veterinarians (equine, small animal, mixed practice, other) using an opinion poll to compare the results and evaluate the performance of the programme. Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN) were trained on 2346 photographs of equine eyes, which were augmented to 9384 images. Two hundred and sixty-one separate unmodified images were used to evaluate the trained network. The trained deep learning tool was used on 40 photographs of equine eyes (10 healthy, 12 uveitis, 18 other diseases). An opinion poll was used to evaluate the diagnostic performance of 148 veterinarians in comparison to the software tool. The probability for the correct answer was 93% for the AI programme. Equine veterinarians answered correctly in 76%, whereas other veterinarians reached 67% probability for the correct diagnosis. Diagnosis was solely based on images of equine eyes without the possibility to evaluate the inner eye. The deep learning tool proved to be at least equivalent to veterinarians in assessing ophthalmic diseases in photographs. We therefore conclude that the software tool may be useful in detecting potential emergency cases. In this context, blindness in horses may be prevented as the horse can receive accurate treatment or can be sent to an equine hospital. Furthermore, the tool gives less experienced veterinarians the opportunity to differentiate between uveitis and other ocular anterior segment disease and to support them in their decision-making regarding treatment.

Should radiographs of the thoracolumbar spine remain part of the pre‐purchase examination?

SummaryThe inclusion of thoracolumbar radiographs in a pre‐purchase examination (PPE) is a topic of current and intense debate, subsequent to a statement from the Federation of European Equine Veterinary Associations (FEEVA) advocating the exclusion of spinous process radiography from the PPE. This review will consider the reasons behind the addition of such radiographs into PPEs, the limitations of radiography in ambulatory practice and therefore, the diagnostic limitations to the practitioner, the diagnostic benefit of a complete radiographic examination, and discussion of common and less‐frequent thoracolumbar pathologies. We will focus on laterolateral radiographs of the spinous processes as these are most commonly acquired during the PPE. The lack of consistent and repeatable grading systems highlights the subjective nature and variability in assessing this region radiographically. Coupled with the sparse scientific evidence of correlation between clinical signs of primary back pain, future performance in different levels and disciplines of equine athletes and radiographic abnormalities of the thoracolumbar spine leads us to conclude that taking radiographs of the back during PPEs should not be performed unless the clinical examination indicates otherwise.

Bibliometric Analysis of Scientific Studies on Horse Welfare from Past to Present

Animal welfare studies continue to gain importance over the years. Since horses are bred and cared for many different purposes, welfare studies on horses have a wide scope. Detailed information about the research topic can be obtained by determining many changes such as the fields, researchers and countries in the published studies over the years through bibliometric analysis. For the bibliometric analysis of horse welfare studies, the Web of Science database was scanned and a total of 1983 documents were found between 1983 and 2023. The most studies in this field were found in Animals, Applied Animal Welfare Science and Equine Veterinary Journal. Mc Greevy P.D. was determined as the author with the most articles in this field. The highest number of corresponding authors of articles in horse welfare were from the United Kingdom. By the bibliometric analysis, the change in years of the trend research fields of horse welfare, based on keywords made the changes particularly easy to understand. The results of the present study could easily be used in planning further studies in horse welfare, which could save time and costs.

‘First, do no harm’: systematic program evaluation of an equine veterinary service-learning initiative with Indigenous communities in Canada

BackgroundVeterinary students have historically lacked meaningful experiential learning opportunities in equine medicine. At the same time, there are barriers to accessing veterinary care in Indigenous communities stemming from colonial injustices. In 2018–2019, a partnership was initiated where University of Calgary students began to provide equine veterinary services to Indigenous communities. As the first-documented equine veterinary service-learning initiative in Indigenous communities embedded in a veterinary curriculum, the purpose of the study is to systematically evaluate the program for its potential impact as part of a formative process for improvement.MethodsMultiple parties in the program were engaged in a convergent, parallel, mixed-methods systematic program evaluation to explore the main program outcomes: (1) equine veterinary care; (2) clinical experiential student education; (3) cultural training of veterinary professionals and students; and (4) education of community members. The hypothesis was that ethical development using the “first, do no harm principle” would lead to benefits including a healthy horse population, a technically and culturally competent veterinary community, and an educated horse clientele.ResultsThe program had a positive impact on accessibility to veterinary care and self-reported improvement in veterinary and cultural competency. In addition to the hypothesized program outcomes, additional program outcomes and effects were identified, including reciprocal learning and relationship building with the Indigenous community, leading to trust and equity-building. The students learned from both the in-community programming as well as the Indigenous community members they worked with.ConclusionProgram evaluation of an equine service-learning initiative in Indigenous communities reveals multiple and profound impacts including improved patient health status, wider scope of veterinary and cultural learning, strengthened relationships, and reciprocal learning with partnering Indigenous communities.

Contribution of the veterinary profession to the Australian animal health surveillance system and opportunities for future contributions

Animal health surveillance is crucial for early detection of emergency animal diseases and effective responses. However, surveillance systems are complex and rely on the contributions of many animal health stakeholders. Veterinarians are key stakeholders in this system, given their role and skills in investigating, diagnosing, and reporting notifiable diseases. This study investigated the contribution of the veterinary workforce to the Australian animal health surveillance system and opportunities for future involvement. To achieve the aims of the study, an online cross-sectional survey among the veterinary profession was conducted. Descriptive statistics and regression analyses were used to provide an overview and investigate drivers of attitudes and practices of veterinarians in relation to animal health surveillance. A total of 311 usable responses were obtained, with 191 being from veterinarians who worked in private practice in the previous 12 months. Among private practitioners, 58.6% worked with companion animals, 34.0% were mixed practice veterinarians and 7.3% were equine veterinarians. Over half (56.6%) of all participants considered themselves active participants in the local animal disease management system. The level of confidence in understanding the reporting system and knowing and identifying signs of endemic and exotic diseases was moderate among those working in private practice, with companion animal veterinarians reporting the lowest levels of confidence (p < 0.05). Approximately 40% of veterinarians had taken samples for diagnosis for notifiable diseases in the last year, with just over 20% reporting a notifiable disease. Awareness of and participation in training and surveillance programs for animal diseases by veterinarians was low, with those working in private practice having lower levels of both awareness and participation for most programs. In relation to potential future contribution to the surveillance system, over half of participants reported being interested and available to undertake surveillance work on behalf of the government, with those in mixed practice reporting higher levels of interest (69.6%) compared to those in companion (49.5%) and equine practice (30.8%). However, key challenges identified were related to perceived conflict of interest, and tensions between client needs and government agenda, followed by profitability and suitability of the business. This study provides evidence of a significant existing contribution by the veterinary profession to the surveillance system, and the capacity and willingness to increase this contribution. However, there are gaps in awareness, confidence and participation, as well as financial and veterinary-client relationship challenges that should be considered in any future planning to strengthen the Australian surveillance system.

Madigan's squeeze technique: a review for equine veterinary nurses

Foals that are affected with neonatal maladjustment syndrome make up 3–5% of the foaling population. A very rapid, assisted vaginal birth or delivery via caesarean section are risk factors for neonatal maladjustment syndrome. This article examines the therapeutic application of Madigan's squeeze technique for neonatal foals diagnosed with neonatal maladjustment syndrome. It discusses the appropriate methods and timing for practitioners to use Madigan's squeeze technique in treating affected foals under the supervision of a veterinarian.

(326) Intrauterine Insemination: A Story of Husbandry and Husbands

Abstract Introduction Intrauterine insemination (IUI) is one of the most common methods of reproductive assistance in the modern era. As most female mammals have an estrous cycle, IUI as a procedure can be broadly applied to a wide array of species. Objective We sought to explore the history of IUI from its origins to modern application in assisted human reproduction. Methods We reviewed articles from Google Scholar, PubMed, and MedLine. Results Unverified accounts of the artificial insemination of an Arabian Mare can be traced back to the French translation of a 14th century equine veterinary textbook. A century later, King Henry IV of Castile, given the unfortunate nickname the Impotent, holds the first unsubstantiated claim of successfully using IUI. However, subsequent accounts dispute the paternity of the princess. It was not until the 18th century that Italian scientist Lazzaro Spallanzani would successfully conduct canine IUI with the birth of three puppies. Concurrently, famed surgeon John Hunter advised an impotent hypospadias patient to collect his post-coital semen. Hunter would subsequently instill it into the wife’s vaginal vault with reported successful pregnancy. Jumping forward to the mid 1800s J. Marion Sims, the so-called Father of Gynecology, instilled semen in six enslaved African American women, unfortunately time with their menstrual cycles, resulting in one pregnancy and subsequent miscarriage. In 1884 Dr. William Pancoast successfully performed IUI using a medical student’s semen, unbeknownst to the husband and wife. The results were published 25 years after the procedure. Human artificial reproduction had gained enough notoriety at the time to attract the attention of the Catholic Church. Pope Leo XIII condemned the practice as illicit. The majority of IUI research would then be largely conducted in Europe for the purpose of superior dairy cattle and stallions. In 1938 New Jersey dairy farm operator EJ Perry was the first American to institute cattle artificial insemination using Danish practices. Just one year later Gregory Pincus at Harvard University would remove and fertilize the egg of a female rabbit. Implantation into a second donor female resulted in a successful litter. Vast improvements in sperm preservation were made utilizing bull semen, egg yolks, sodium citrate, and glycerol. Contamination rates were reduced with the invention of the reputed Cornell Extender, and by 1953 Dr. Jerome Sherman was able to freeze, thaw, and successfully fertilize a human oocyte. Although the first successful pregnancy using frozen spermatozoa was reported in 1953, a conception rate of 3.4% reported by Mastriani et al led them to conclude the practice should be abandoned if no improvements made. The introduction of in-vitro fertilization in 1978 by Steptoe and Edwards effected subsequent improvements in sperm washing techniques, sperm selection and use of adjunctive hormones for induction of ovulation. IUI would go on to become one of the most common assisted reproduction techniques world-wide. Conclusions IUI has undergone numerous, major breakthroughs across several species with, at times, questionable ethical practices. Nonetheless, it provides an additional option to couples globally and appears here to stay Disclosure No.

Development, refinement, and validation of an equine musculoskeletal pain scale.

Musculoskeletal disease is a common cause of chronic pain that is often overlooked and inadequately treated, impacting the quality of life of humans and horses alike. Lameness due to musculoskeletal pain is prevalent in horses, but the perception of pain by owners is low compared with veterinary diagnosis. Therefore, this study aims to establish and validate a pain scale for chronic equine orthopaedic pain that is user-friendly for horse owners and veterinarians to facilitate the identification and monitoring of pain in horses. The newly developed musculoskeletal pain scale (MPS) was applied to 154 horses (mean age 20 ± 6.4 years SD) housed at an equine sanctuary, of which 128 (83%) suffered from chronic orthopaedic disease. To complete the MPS, the horses were observed and videotaped from a distance while at rest in their box or enclosure. In addition, they received a complete clinical and orthopaedic exam. The need for veterinary intervention to address pain (assessed and executed by the sanctuary independent from this study) was used as a longitudinal health outcome to determine the MPS's predictive validity. To determine the interrater agreement, the MPS was scored for a randomly selected subset of 30 horses by six additional blinded raters, three equine veterinary practitioners, and three experienced equestrians. An iterative process was used to refine the tool based on improvements in the MPS's correlation with lameness evaluated at the walk and trot, predictive validity for longitudinal health outcomes, and interrater agreement. The intraclass correlation improved from 0.77 of the original MPS to 0.88 of the refined version (95% confidence interval: 0.8-0.94). The refined MPS correlated significantly with lameness at the walk (r = 0.44, p = 0.001) and trot (r = 0.5, p < 0.0001). The refined MPS significantly differed between horses that needed veterinary intervention (mean MPS = 8.6) and those that did not (mean MPS = 5.0, p = 0.0007). In summary, the MPS showed good interrater repeatability between expert and lay scorers, significant correlation with lameness at the walk and trot, and good predictive validity for longitudinal health outcomes, confirming its ability to identify horses with orthopaedic health problems.

Survey of UK veterinary students' perceptions about a career in equine practice

SummaryBackgroundWorkforce shortages are challenges facing veterinary practice. Anecdotal evidence suggests that veterinary students are less interested in entering equine practice than previously.ObjectivesInvestigate veterinary students' perceptions about equine veterinary education and about working in equine practice.Study designObservational study: online survey.MethodsSurvey distributed via social media to veterinary students in the United Kingdom. Open and closed questions to document intended career path of students and evaluate perceptions about careers in equine practice.ResultsSeven hundred and forty‐four students completed the survey—from 10 veterinary schools. 88.8% intended to work in clinical practice (32.9% mixed; 25.3% small animal; 20.2% equine; 10.9% farm; 10.7% other/undecided). Factors considered most important for their first job included: mentoring and support (47.0%), team and practice culture (26.2%), working hours (including out‐of‐hours; 9.2%), location (6.6%), salary and benefits (5.7%) and familiarity with the practice (3.1%). 55.2% felt there were barriers to entering equine practice. 46.9% had ridden a horse regularly; 14.2% had never ridden. Respondents in clinical years rated their university training in equine practice as ‘Excellent’ (10.0%), ‘Good’ (45.9%), ‘OK’ (35.3%), ‘Poor’ (7.0%) and ‘Rubbish’ (1.8%). 48.9% of respondents felt extra mural studies (EMS) had contributed most to their equine training. Statistical associations were identified between the following variables and intention to work in equine practice: owning a horse, having ever ridden a horse, confidence in handling horses, student membership of BEVA and desire to undertake an internship.Main limitationsPotential selection bias.Conclusions20% of students reported an intention to work in equine practice, but risk of selection bias. The results indicate a potential mismatch between the number of students interested in equine practice and the availability of equine jobs for new graduates. Students with pre‐existing equine interest/experience are more likely to want to enter equine practice. EMS appears important for students' training in equine medicine.

Substantial variability exists in the interpretation of survey radiographs among equine veterinarians.

Radiographs are a common diagnostic tool utilised during pre-purchase examinations, yet differences surround their interpretation among equine veterinarians. (1) To determine veterinarians' subjective impressions of a spectrum of radiographic abnormalities regarding suitability for purchase; (2) To determine how veterinarians' years in practice, primary discipline or board certification status influence their subjective impression of radiographic abnormalities, and (3) To determine how horses' discipline, current level of work (working at intended level vs. future prospect) and buyer intent (sell vs. retain ownership) influence veterinarians' subsequent recommendation. Worldwide electronic survey of veterinary professionals. Four radiographic series of navicular bones, tarsi, and stifles, representing varying degrees of pathological change (normal, mild, moderate and marked) were presented. Respondents (n = 211) graded their level of concern from 1 (no concern) to 10 (very concerned) based on the radiographs and case scenarios presented. Overall, as the grade of pathological change increased for each anatomical location, so did the level of veterinarian concern, but a wide range of answers were submitted for all grades of pathology. Board certified practitioners had a higher level of concern over marked radiographic changes of the navicular bone for both western performance and English sport horses as well as prospect horses (mean = 7.2 vs. 6.1; P = 0.009; 95% CI for difference = [0.3, 2.0]). Board certified respondents had a lower level of concern over marked radiographic changes of the tarsus regardless of the performance status of the horse (mean = 7.1 vs. 8.0; P = 0.008; 95% CI for difference = [-1.5, -0.2]). Western performance horse practitioners had a lower level of concern over mild radiographic changes of the tarsus regardless of the performance status of the horse (mean = 3.3 vs. 4.2; P = 0.009; 95% CI for difference = [-1.6, -0.2]). Only one example of each pathological grade per anatomical region was presented. On survey radiographs, the perceived clinical relevance of radiographic abnormalities among equine practitioners differs widely, making purchase recommendations highly variable.

Chiropractic effects on stride parameters and heart rate during exercise in sport horses.

Equine veterinarians performing chiropractic treatments are frequently asked to evaluate and treat sound horses to improve their performance and address pain associated with the axial skeleton. Studies describing the effects and mechanisms of chiropractic treatments in horses without overt lameness are scarce. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of chiropractic treatments on stride rate, length, symmetry, heart rate and rider-perceived quality of the ridden work in sport horses. A blind randomised controlled trial with crossover design. Thirty-eight horses ridden in the hunter-jumper discipline were enrolled. Exercise tests were recorded before and after chiropractic or sham treatment while horses were wearing a fitness tracker. Stride length, rate and symmetry, heart rate and the perceived quality of the ridden work were compared. There was a difference in the qualitative assessment of the ridden work by riders between treatments (odds ratio 33.8, 95% CI [4.68, 458.71], p < 0.01). Stride length, rate, symmetry and heart rate were not different between treatments. The quantitative outcomes measured may not be sensitive enough to detect changes that improve the ridden work. Terrain, weather and rider were not standard across horses making small changes difficult to detect. Riders participating in a blind randomised controlled trial perceived a positive effect of chiropractic treatments on the quality of the ridden work. There were no differences in stride length, stride rate, stride symmetry or heart rate. The mechanisms, indications and potential benefits of chiropractic treatments in horses need further study.

Effect of prewarmed crystalloid fluids and an in-line fluid warming device on fluid outflow temperatures at ambient temperatures of 21-22°C and 3.5°C

Equine veterinarians frequently treat patients in non-climate-controlled (i.e., hospitalized) settings. In colder environments, intravenous (IV) fluid administration can contribute to patient hypothermia. The objective of this study was to evaluate three IV fluid warming mechanisms to determine their effect on fluid outflow temperatures at ambient temperatures of 21-22°C and 3.5°C. In this study, fluid outflow temperatures were measured using three warming mechanisms: (1) pre-warmed fluids at 42°C, (2) an in-line warming device placed 163 cm away from the Luer-lock fluid line adaptor (location 1) on the fluid line, and (3) an in-line warming device placed 88 cm away from the Luer-lock fluid line adaptor (location 2) on the fluid line. These warming mechanisms were compared to outflow temperatures measured using no warming mechanism at ambient temperatures of 21-22°C and 3.5°C with flow rates of ∼12 L/hour (gravity flow bolus) and 999 mL/hour. All outflow temperatures were measured with a thermistor. At ∼12L/hour, the use of pre-warmed fluids increased outflow temperatures at both ambient temperatures of 21-22°C and 3.5°C ambient temperatures and an in-line warming device placed at location 1 significantly increased outflow temperatures in 3.5°C ambient temperatures. At 999 mL/hour, use of pre-warmed fluids or an in-line warming device, placed at either location, increased outflow temperatures at ambient temperatures of 21°C or 3.5°C.

An assessment of equine veterinarian knowledge and perceptions of ticks and tick‐borne diseases in the United States to inform continuing education needs

SummaryBackgroundTicks can harm horses and transmit diseases, making them a growing concern for owners and veterinarians. Veterinarians play a crucial role in providing advice on tick prevention and control. Yet, no research has examined their perspectives on equine ticks and tick‐borne disease (TBD).ObjectivesThe objective was to assess equine veterinarians' experiences, knowledge and practices related to fundamental aspects of tick biology and identification, tick bite prevention and TBD in the United States.Study designThis project surveyed equine veterinarians in the United States about their knowledge of ticks and TBD affecting horses using nonprobability convenience sampling. The survey questions were grouped into six categories: respondent demographics, knowledge of ticks and TBDs, tick control option availability, tick and TBD frequency in horses and veterinary education and information availability.MethodsData were analysed using descriptive statistics, chi‐square analysis and t‐tests. The sample was divided into Northeast and United States veterinarians, and a significance level of p &lt; 0.05 was set. The study aimed to inform continuing education development for veterinarians by assessing their knowledge, practices and perceptions of ticks and TBDs.ResultsThe results indicate that while equine veterinarians know the importance of TBDs in equine health, knowledge on ticks and TBDs varies significantly.Main limitationsLimitations for the current study include potential response bias and a limited sample from many states.ConclusionsThere is a need for increased tick control and prevention options and more animal‐specific resources for tick and TBD prevention. Veterinarians and horse owners require greater education and comprehensive information to prevent tick‐borne illnesses in horses. Collaborations between academia, industry and the human medicine community are suggested to build capacity for training veterinarians.

Decision Making in Severe Equine Asthma-Diagnosis and Monitoring.

Decision making consists of gathering quality data in order to correctly assess a situation and determine the best course of action. This process is a fundamental part of medicine and is what enables practitioners to accurately diagnose diseases and select appropriate treatment protocols. Despite severe equine asthma (SEA) being a highly prevalent lower respiratory disease amongst equids, clinicians still struggle with the optimization of routine diagnostic procedures. The use of several ancillary diagnostic tests has been reported for disease identification and monitoring, but many are only suitable for research purposes or lack practicality for everyday use. The aim of this paper is to assist the equine veterinarian in the process of decision making associated with managing SEA-affected patients. This review will focus on disease diagnosis and monitoring, while also presenting a flow-chart which includes the basic data that the clinician must obtain in order to accurately identify severely asthmatic horses in their everyday routine practice. It is important to note that European and American board-certified specialists on equine internal medicine can provide assistance in the diagnosis and treatment plan of SEA-affected horses.

Development and Validation of an Equine Castration Model and Rubric.

Castration is one of the most common surgeries performed in equine practice. Veterinary students require deliberate practice to reach competence in surgical procedures including equine castration, but availability of patients limits students' practice opportunities. A recumbent equine castration model was created and evaluated using a validation framework consisting of content evidence (expert opinion), internal structure evidence (reliability of scores produced by the accompanying rubric), and evidence of relationship with other variables, specifically the difference in scores between experts and students. A convenience sample of third-year students who had never performed equine castration (n = 24) and veterinarians who had performed equine castration (n = 25) performed surgery on the model while being video recorded. Participants completed a post-operative survey about the model. All veterinarians (100%) agreed or strongly agreed that the model was suitable for teaching students the steps to perform equine castration and for assessing students' skill. The checklist produced scores with good internal consistency (α = 0.805). Veterinarians performed the castration faster than the students (p = .036) and achieved a higher total global rating score (p = .003). There was no significant difference between groups in total checklist score or individual checklist items, except veterinarians were more likely to check both sides for bleeding (p = .038). The equine castration model and rubric validated in this study can be used in a low-stress clinical skills environment to improve students' skills to perform what is otherwise a challenging field procedure. Model use should be followed with live animal practice to complete the learning process.

Prospective case study of critical decision making for horses referred for treatment of colic.

There is limited evidence on factors affecting critical decision making for horses with colic. This study's aim was to describe the assessment and decision making involved in horses referred for management of colic. An in-depth case analysis was used to document case presentation, decision making and outcomes for horses referred for colic to two UK equine veterinary practices over a 12-month period. The data recorded included previous history, presenting signs, response to treatment, case outcome and factors affecting decisions for further treatment or euthanasia. Data were available for 60 cases: 55 were hospitalised for medical or surgical treatment and five horses were euthanased following initial assessment. The main factors affecting treatment decisions were severity of clinical signs (80%, 47/59), financial concerns (10%, 6/59) and ongoing health issues or previous history of colic (5%, 3/59). Factors associated with euthanasia decisions were postoperative complications (5/18), poor prognosis (4/18), deteriorating clinical signs (3/18) and financial concerns (3/18). The limited study population may affect the extent to which the findings can be generalised. The severity of clinical signs was the key factor in treatment decision making. The main factors affecting euthanasia decisions were clinical deterioration, poor prognosis and financial constraints. These findings should be incorporated into clinical case recording to capture the multifactorial nature of decision making.