Implications For Environmental Policy Research Articles

Modeling of Aerosol Vertical Profiles Using GIS and Remote Sensing

The use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Remote Sensing (RS) by climatologists, environmentalists and urban planners for three dimensional modeling and visualization of the landscape is well established. However no previous study has implemented these techniques for 3D modeling of atmospheric aerosols because air quality data is traditionally measured at ground points, or from satellite images, with no vertical dimension. This study presents a prototype for modeling and visualizing aerosol vertical profiles over a 3D urban landscape in Hong Kong. The method uses a newly developed technique for the derivation of aerosol vertical profiles from AERONET sunphotometer measurements and surface visibility data, and links these to a 3D urban model. This permits automated modeling and visualization of aerosol concentrations at different atmospheric levels over the urban landscape in near-real time. Since the GIS platform permits presentation of the aerosol vertical distribution in 3D, it can be related to the built environment of the city. Examples are given of the applications of the model, including diagnosis of the relative contribution of vehicle emissions to pollution levels in the city, based on increased near-surface concentrations around weekday rush-hour times. The ability to model changes in air quality and visibility from ground level to the top of tall buildings is also demonstrated, and this has implications for energy use and environmental policies for the tall mega-cities of the future.

RESEARCH INITIATIVES: What Lies Ahead for Nanotechnology?

RESEARCH INITIATIVES: What Lies Ahead for Nanotechnology?

Environmental dialogue in online communities: negotiating ecological citizenship among global travellers

AbstractThe aim of this paper is to investigate how web‐based online communities bring about new forms of environmental dialogue. We suggest that these online sites play an important role in setting the stage for new forms of cultural production, dissemination of environmental knowledge and environmental dialogue, through which particular forms of ecological citizenship and consumer culture are being created and sustained. Based on an empirical study of an online community of ‘global travelers’ carried out using netnographic methods, the study shows how environmental knowledge is being disseminated, negotiated and made sense of in the online environments of the global marketplace. Our findings illustrate, in particular, how online communities may work out an agenda for sustainable consumption practices and lifestyles, and create new forms of consumer citizenship. Regarding the environmental policy implications of our study, we argue that there is a need to facilitate the creation of online environments where consumers can participate in the construction of active consumer citizenship.

Shaping Corporate Environmental Performance: A Review

The aims of this review article are to map the development of the corporate environmental responsibility (CER) concept, to trace the principal debates concerning its contribution to environmental protection, to examine the arguments about the relationship between CER and competitive advantage and to examine whether, to what extent and in what circumstances, business behaviour is shaped by broader external forces, not least by markets, governments and civil society. From here, the article concludes by drawing some explicit implications for environmental policy and governance.

The Study on Global Oil and Gas Supply and Demand Undertaken by the National Petroleum Council (USA)

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The National Petroleum Council (NPC) Study on Global Oil and Gas promises to be one of the most comprehensive studies on global oil and gas supply and demand projections ever undertaken to date. Comprised of approximately 250 experts from industry, government, academia, foreign energy ministries, national oil companies, and non-government organizations, the study team is in the process of collecting and analyzing global data on supply and demand trends through the year 2030. While other studies have examined the economic, environmental, security and foreign policy implications of the oil and gas supply and demand picture, seldom does a study attempt to examine all three political priorities simultaneously as does the NPC Study on Global Oil and Gas. The multi-dimensional foundations of the policy recommendations, as well as the diversity and expertise of the roughly 250 individuals who contributed to the findings, truly separate this study from previous studies on global oil and gas supply and demand. Over the course of June 2006 to June 2007, the NPC Supply Task Group, Demand Task Group, Technology Task Group, and Geopolitics and Policy Task Group are analyzing data and identifying key findings and trends in the global oil and gas supply and demand picture. In order to accurately predict a range of possible supply and demand outcomes, a great emphasis is also being placed on the role of coal, nuclear, renewable energy, and unconventional oil and gas technologies, in addition to an environment in which carbon management is likely to play a more prominent role. From the onset of the study, broad participation that crosses national borders and industry lines has been sought in order to examine the fundamental assumptions that form the basis for oil and gas supply and demand projections. The following paper chronicles the history of U.S. Secretary of Energy Samuel Bodman’s request that the NPC conduct a study on global oil and gas resources, and provides a detailed look at the various issues that the four study Task Groups (Supply, Demand, Technology, and Geopolitics & Policy) are exploring. Although key findings and policy recommendations will not be released prior to the study’s release in June of 2007, the following paper provides the scope of work and the detailed project plan that will result in an energy outlook that is differentiated from all recent studies.

A case study on environmental perspectives of boulderers and access issues at the Niagara Glen Nature Reserve

Abstract Currently, there are concerns about access restrictions to bouldering, a form of rock climbing, and other outdoor activities practiced at the Niagara Glen Nature Reserve located near Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada. The Niagara Parks Commission is currently in the process of exploring ways to balance protection of the natural area with sustainable recreational use. The purpose of this study was to describe setting perceptions of a husband and wife climbing partnership toward the Niagara Glen using a case study approach. This approach was used to analyze the couple's experiences and reflections using a place-based conceptual lens to highlight interactions with the Niagara Glen over 12 years. Four major themes were identified with respect to setting perception including: 1) Specific rock memories, 2) Community and friendship, 3) Setting location and 4) Environmental degradation. Implications for environmental perspectives and policy are discussed. Restrictions to access at a number of rock climbing areas in southern Ontario, Canada are due to negative environmental impacts, plant and animal protection, and recreational overuse associated with the recreational activity of rock climbing (Leung & Marion, 2000; McMillan, Nekola, & Larson, 2003; Monz, Smith, & Knickerboxer, 2005; Roth, 2007; Siderelis & Attarian, 2004). The negative impacts to these environments are not only detrimental to the physical landscapes and their ecosystems, but they also impact the experiences and perceptions of all recreation participants (Monz et al., 2005). There is, however, some debate that outdoor recreation activities, such as rock climbing and bouldering, can be sustainable at popular sites if participants are taught proper techniques, such as minimum impact practices (Marion & Reid, 2001). Additionally, some suggest while the environmental impacts at such areas are of high concern, the areas have already been impacted and may avoid spreading problems associated with overuse to other areas by concentrating recreationists at particular sites (Leung & Marion, 2000; Watson, 2000). The purpose of this study was to explore setting perceptions from two stakeholders who have devoted a large part of their lives and values to the Niagara Glen Nature Reserve through the activity of bouldering. Specifically, this study was guided by two primary research questions: 1) What are the perceptions of boulderers toward the Niagara Glen? 2) How can perceptions of boulderers be used to inform environmental policy? The authors hope to use this exploratory study to guide another study, which will explore the perceptions of boulderers, other user groups, and park managers toward the Niagara Glen. Potential access restrictions, area closures, and changes in environmental policy at sites like the Niagara Glen are results of a complex intersection of management strategy, people, fragile environments, and human behaviours (Ritchie, 2002). There has been research conducted on the environmental impacts of rock climbing and bouldering from a variety of perspectives with varying results, some which call for management policy to restrict recreational rock climbing activities along the Niagara Escarpment (McMillan et al., 2003). Other studies have shown that specific styles of climbing along the Niagara Escarpment (such as advanced sport climbing) do not necessarily adversely affect cliff-face vegetation, rather, the sites chosen for this style of climbing have natural characteristics that tend to support less vegetation (Kuntz & Larson, 2006). Measuring the impact of rock climbing activities is still evolving and will affect environmental management policy in the future at sites like the Niagara Glen (Ritchie, 2002). The focus of this paper, however, is on the human dimensions of boulderers. While there has been research conducted on other outdoor recreation user groups and the environmental impacts of rock climbing activities, there has been very little research conducted on the environmental perspectives of boulderers. …

What motivates farmers to participate in the Nova Scotia environmental farm plan program? Evidence and environmental policy implications

Program stakeholders are interested in better understanding farmers' experience, and factors that affect farmer participation in the relatively new Environmental Farm Plan (EFP) program, implemented in several provinces in Canada. To increase relevance of the research findings to EFP program administrators and policy makers, the research methods emphasised determining whether relationships exist among program-related variables, and how such relationships affect farmers' decision choices and behaviour. Traditional farmer and farm attributes that have contrasting effects in agricultural innovation adoption and conservation management (namely age, and formal education completed), were not associated with EFP program participation. Farm income, years of farming experience, and type of agribusiness managed were associated with participation in the Nova Scotia EFP program. Although program participants tended to have higher incomes, overall, non-financial considerations dominated monetary considerations in Nova Scotia farmers' reasons for participating in the Nova Scotia EFP. Helping to publicize positive farm stewardship practices was reported as the most important reason for participating in the EFP scheme, followed by its use to help improve relationships with non-farming neighbours, and to comply with government environmental regulations. In contrast, and somewhat a surprising finding, minimizing potential farm environmental risk, program administrators' raison d'être for promoting the NS EFP, was ranked the lowest, with no respondent rating that as a “very important” or “extremely important” reason for participating in the EFP program.

Season, Sex, Age, and Education as Modifiers of the Effects of Outdoor Air Pollution on Daily Mortality in Shanghai, China: The Public Health and Air Pollution in Asia (PAPA) Study

BackgroundVarious factors can modify the health effects of outdoor air pollution. Prior findings about modifiers are inconsistent, and most of these studies were conducted in developed countries.ObjectivesWe conducted a time-series analysis to examine the modifying effect of season, sex, age, and education on the association between outdoor air pollutants [particulate matter < 10 μm in aerodynamic diameter (PM10), sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and ozone] and daily mortality in Shanghai, China, using 4 years of daily data (2001–2004).MethodsUsing a natural spline model to analyze the data, we examined effects of air pollution for the warm season (April–September) and cool season (October–March) separately. For total mortality, we examined the association stratified by sex and age. Stratified analysis by educational attainment was conducted for total, cardiovascular, and respiratory mortality.ResultsOutdoor air pollution was associated with mortality from all causes and from cardiorespiratory diseases in Shanghai. An increase of 10 μg/m3 in a 2-day average concentration of PM10, SO2, NO2, and O3 corresponds to increases in all-cause mortality of 0.25% [95% confidence interval (CI), 0.14–0.37), 0.95% (95% CI, 0.62–1.28), 0.97% (95% CI, 0.66–1.27), and 0.31% (95% CI, 0.04–0.58), respectively. The effects of air pollutants were more evident in the cool season than in the warm season, and females and the elderly were more vulnerable to outdoor air pollution. Effects of air pollution were generally greater in residents with low educational attainment (illiterate or primary school) compared with those with high educational attainment (middle school or above).ConclusionsSeason, sex, age, and education may modify the health effects of outdoor air pollution in Shanghai. These findings provide new information about the effects of modifiers on the relationship between daily mortality and air pollution in developing countries and may have implications for local environmental and social policies.

Temporal pessimism and spatial optimism in environmental assessments: An 18-nation study

The personal assessments of the current and expected future state of the environment by 3232 community respondents in 18 nations were investigated at the local, national, and global spatial levels. These assessments were compared to a ranking of each country's environmental quality by an expert panel. Temporal pessimism (“things will get worse”) was found in the assessments at all three spatial levels. Spatial optimism bias (“things are better here than there”) was found in the assessments of current environmental conditions in 15 of 18 countries, but not in the assessments of the future. All countries except one exhibited temporal pessimism, but significant differences between them were common. Evaluations of current environmental conditions also differed by country. Citizens' assessments of current conditions, and the degree of comparative optimism, were strongly correlated with the expert panel's assessments of national environmental quality. Aside from the value of understanding global trends in environmental assessments, the results have important implications for environmental policy and risk management strategies.

Introduction: Evolutionary methodologies for analyzing environmental innovations and the implications for environmental policy

Introduction: Evolutionary methodologies for analyzing environmental innovations and the implications for environmental policy

Environmental Regulation and Horizontal Mergers in the Eco-Industry

This paper considers the environmental policy and welfare implications of a merger between environment firms (i.e., firms managing environmental resources or supplying pollution abatement goods and services). The traditional analysis of mergers in Cournot oligopolies is extended in two ways. First, we show how environmental policy affects the incentives of environment firms to merge. Second, we stress that mergers in the eco-industry impact welfare beyond what is observed in other sectors, due to an extra effect on pollution abatement efforts; this might lead to disagreements between an anti-trust agency seeking to limit market concentration which can be detrimental to consumer surplus and a benevolent regulator who maximizes total welfare.

Framing environmental policy by the local press: Case study from the Dadia Forest Reserve, Greece

This paper critically examines the way environmental policy is framed by the press. Focusing on the Dadia Forest Reserve (Greece), we investigated the article content of a local newspaper across three subsequent periods of ecotourism development and three item topics, namely ‘ecotourism’, ‘forest management’ and ‘environmental awareness’. Content analysis of newspaper articles was based on a pre-defined coding scheme. Overall, time trends as reflected in the local press implied a change in environmental policy stirring from an expert-led towards a more participatory approach. Gradually, balanced schemes dominated environmental policy, where both environmental and economic considerations were taken into account under a diverse spatiotemporal range. Social consensus seems to have been established during the second period of ecotourism development. Ecotourism as an item topic was less connected to environmentalist motives compared to economic ones; the opposite was revealed for the forest management topic. However, our reconstruction of environmental policy in the local press, showed that environmental and economic motives did hardly intercross. Additionally, the ability of the local press to produce and limit meaning was manifested by the sealing of any production process including the one that apparently produces the ecotourism product. Implications for environmental policy and forest management are discussed.

Environmental Policy Implications of Extreme Variations in Pollutant Stock Levels and Socioeconomic Costs

Motivated by recent evidence on the possibility of jumps in carbon dioxide emission levels and abrupt increases in pollutant-related socio-economic costs, this paper uses a real options approach to examine their impact with respect to the optimal timing of environmental policies and the optimal emissions abatement level. To this end, we extend the methodology of Pindyck (2000) using jump diffusion processes. We show that if pollutant stock levels are subject to extreme variations and the emissions abatement level is chosen exogenously by the policymaker, then environmental policy measures should be taken earlier. A similar, yet more prominent, effect is observed under the assumption that pollutant-related socio-economic costs and benefits are expected to exhibit abrupt changes. However, different results are obtained when we examine simultaneously the two interrelated decisions, namely, the optimal timing of emissions abatement and the optimal abatement level. In this case, an increase in the size and/or probability of a jump, delays policy adoption but leads to higher optimal abatement.

Prenatal Exposure to Airborne Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Risk of Intrauterine Growth Restriction

BackgroundPolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are ubiquitous air pollutants generated by combustion of organic material, including fossil fuel.ObjectivesIt has been an open question whether prenatal exposure to air pollution in general and PAHs in particular significantly increases the risk of intrauterine growth restriction, including small size for gestational age (SGA), and preterm delivery. Here, we have examined this hypothesis in a cohort of mothers and newborns in New York City.MethodsSubjects were young, nonsmoking, healthy African-American (n = 224) and Dominican (n = 392) mother–newborn pairs residing in New York City whose prenatal PAH exposures were estimated by personal air monitoring. Questionnaire and medical record data were obtained.ResultsA 1 natural-log (ln)-unit increase in prenatal PAH exposure was associated with a 2-fold increase in risk of symmetric intrauterine growth restriction (i.e., SGA and fetal growth ratio < 85%) among full-term African Americans (p < 0.05). Preterm delivery risk was 5-fold greater among African Americans per ln-unit increase in prenatal PAH exposure. The same unit increase in exposure significantly increased the ratio of head circumference to birth weight by 0.04% in African Americans. These effects were not observed in Dominicans.ConclusionPrenatal PAH exposure is likely to contribute to the occurrence of SGA as well as preterm births among African Americans. The lack of an association in Dominicans might reflect modification of the risk by healthful cultural practices among recent Dominican immigrants. Given that PAHs are globally generated and distributed pollutants, our observations have potential implications for environmental health and energy policies.

Effects of Prenatal Exposure to Coal-Burning Pollutants on Children’s Development in China

BackgroundEnvironmental pollutants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), lead, and mercury are released by combustion of coal and other fossil fuels.ObjectivesIn the present study we evaluated the association between prenatal exposure to these pollutants and child development measured by the Gesell Developmental Schedules at 2 years of age.MethodsThe study was conducted in Tongliang, Chongqing, China, where a seasonally operated coal-fired power plant was the major source of ambient PAHs and also contributed lead and mercury to the air. In a cohort of nonsmoking women and their newborns enrolled between March 2002 and June 2002, we measured levels of PAH–DNA adducts, lead, and mercury in umbilical cord blood. PAH–DNA adducts (specifically benzo[a]pyrene adducts) provided a biologically relevant measure of PAH exposure. We also obtained developmental quotients (DQs) in motor, adaptive, language, and social areas.ResultsDecrements in one or more DQs were significantly associated with cord blood levels of PAH–DNA adducts and lead, but not mercury. Increased adduct levels were associated with decreased motor area DQ (p = 0.043), language area DQ (p = 0.059), and average DQ (p = 0.047) after adjusting for cord lead level, environmental tobacco smoke, sex, gestational age, and maternal education. In the same model, high cord blood lead level was significantly associated with decreased social area DQ (p = 0.009) and average DQ (p = 0.038).ConclusionThe findings indicate that exposure to pollutants from the power plant adversely affected the development of children living in Tongliang; these findings have implications for environmental health policy.

Consumer and producer environmental responsibility: Comparing two approaches

Two different indicators of “environmental responsibility” were independently proposed by Rodrigues et al. [Rodrigues, J., Domingos, T., Giljum, S., Schneider, F., 2006. Designing an indicator of environmental responsibility. Ecological Economics, 59 (3): 256–266.] and Lenzen et al. [Lenzen, M., Murray, J., Sack, F., Wiedmann, T., 2007. Shared producer and consumer responsibility — theory and practice. Ecological Economics, 61: 27–42.]. These indicators are both supposed to reflect the indirect effects of consumer and producer behavior in the generation of environmental pressure. In this paper we compare their mathematical properties and interpretation. We conclude that they have different implications for environmental policy.

Short‐term Effects of Ambient Gaseous Pollutants and Particulate Matter on Daily Mortality in Shanghai, China

Identification of the specific pollutants contributing most to the health hazard of the air pollution mixture may have important implications for environmental and social policies. In the current study, we conducted a time-series analysis to examine the specific effects of major air pollutants [particulate matter less than 10 microns in diameter (PM(10)), sulfur dioxide (SO(2)), and nitrogen dioxides (NO(2))] on daily mortality in Shanghai, China, using both single-pollutant and multiple-pollutant models. In the single-pollutant models, PM(10), SO(2), and NO(2) were found to be associated with mortality from both all non-accidental causes and from cardiopulmonary diseases. Unlike some prior studies in North America, we found a significant effect of gaseous pollutants (SO(2) and NO(2)) on daily mortality even after adjustment for PM(10) in the multiple-pollutant models. Our findings, combined with previous Chinese studies showing a consistent, significant effect of gaseous pollutants on mortality, suggest that the role of outdoor exposure to SO(2) and NO(2) should be investigated further in China.

Vehicle Ownership and Income Growth, Worldwide: 1960-2030

The speed of vehicle ownership expansion in emerging market and developing countries has important implications for transport and environmental policies, as well as the global oil market. The literature remains divided on the issue of whether the vehicle ownership rates will ever catch up to the levels common in the advanced economies. This paper contributes to the debate by building a model that explicitly models the vehicle saturation level as a function of observable country characteristics: urbanization and population density. Our model is estimated on the basis of pooled time-series (1960-2002) and crosssection data for 45 countries that include 75 percent of the world’s population. We project that the total vehicle stock will increase from about 800 million in 2002 to more than two billion units in 2030. By this time, 56% of the world’s vehicles will be owned by non-OECD countries, compared with 24% in 2002. In particular, China’s vehicle stock will increase nearly twenty-fold, to 390 million in 2030. This fast speed of vehicle ownership expansion implies rapid growth in oil demand.

Development and Commercialisation of Eco -Innovations by New Ventures

This paper investigates opportunities and obstacles facing new environmental ventures. It does so first through a review of prior work on the growth of new ventures, then through an examination of new empirical research from the UK. Evidence from a database of 73 micro-SMEs allows a comparison between different environmental sectors and identifies obstacles particular to each sector which affect the ability of new ventures to create and capture value. Richer detail is then gained through nine case-profiles. These investigate the role of access to finance and business support in venture growth, along with how new ventures perceive opportunities and obstacles in the innovation process. By way of conclusion we identify some of the implications for environmental innovation policy that emerge from analysis of this data.

Environmental policy implications of extreme variations in pollutant stock levels and socioeconomic costs

This paper uses a real options approach to examine the impact of abrupt increases in carbon dioxide emissions and pollutant-related socio-economic costs. It derives optimal investment rules in the form of critical values for both pollutant stock levels and social costs, above which environmental policies should be adopted. Moreover, it determines the optimal emissions abatement level. Our analysis extends the methodology of Pindyck (2000) using jump diffusion processes. We show that if the stock of pollutant is subject to extreme variations and the emissions abatement level is chosen exogenously by the policymaker, then lower levels of the pollutant stock are required to trigger policy adoption. A similar, yet more prominent, effect is observed under the assumption that pollutant-related socio-economic costs and benefits are expected to exhibit abrupt changes. However, different results are obtained when we examine simultaneously the two interrelated decisions, namely, the optimal threshold of emissions abatement and the optimal abatement level. In this case, an increase in the size and/or probability of a jump increases the critical values of both pollutant stock levels and socio-economic costs but leads to higher optimal abatement.