Environment-friendly Approach Research Articles

Stimulation of Physiological Processes in St. John’s Wort (Hypericum perforatum L.) Seedlings by Treatments with Triacontanol and Benzyladenine

Abstract Treatment of St. John’s wort plantlets with 1 µM triacontanol and 2 µM benzyladenine stimulates growth and metabolic processes, being an environmental-friendly approach for optimizing the cultivation of these valuable medicinal plants under controlled conditions. When the two growth regulators (a bioactive cuticular wax constituent and a cytokinin) are applied simultaneously, they act synergistically, enhancing each other’s effect on the biomass accumulation and on certain parameters of the photosynthetic light use efficiency, such as the effective quantum yield of photosystem II and the overall vitality index of the photosynthetic apparatus which performs the conversion of light energy into usable forms for carbon dioxide assimilation. The results concerning the interactions between the two externally applied growth regulators during the early development of St. John’s wort plants may lead to a more efficient cultivation of this herbal medicinal product, including the possibility to modulate the production of pharmacologically active metabolites.

Plant-based Enzyme-mediated Biodegradation of Azo dyes: A Review

Azo dyes are a popular group of dyes in the printing, food, leather, cosmetic, textile, and pharmaceutical sectors and are the largest and most important group of colored chemicals due to their facile production procedure. It is characterized by the presence of an azo group (-N=N-). The stability of azo dyes makes it recalcitrant. Discharge of untreated waste water that contains colored compounds with azo dye reaches water streams and affects the organisms due to the toxicity of the dyes. Many physicochemical and chemical approaches have been used for the removal of dye from polluted water. Although these procedures effectively treat polluted water but become costly and may result in the formation of hazardous compounds. A microbial enzymatic decolorization is an environment-friendly approach that shows excellent removal efficiency at low operating costs however, it has certain downsides, such as a slow process rate and a longer assimilation phase. Alternatively, enzymes derived from various sources can be employed to biodegrade and decolorize azo dyes. For the treatment of dye-based chemicals, enzymes extracted from plants have benefits over other approaches. They are believed to have a significant potential to degrade the recalcitrant pollutants present in the effluent from industries i.e., laccases, polyphenol oxidases, azoreductases, and different peroxidases like manganese peroxidase, lignin peroxidases, and decolorizing peroxidases, are the common enzymes that are isolated from plants and have the potential in the biodegradation of colored compounds. The importance of these enzymes in the treatment of industrial wastewater is unquestionable.

Effect of RF sputter power on deposition of CZTX (X[dbnd]S, Se) active layer without selenization/sulfurization, for solar cell applications

Copper Zinc Tin Selenide Cu2ZnSnSe4 (CZTSe) and Copper Zinc Tin Sulfide Cu2ZnSnS4 (CZTS) thin films were deposited from a multicomponent single target with different RF sputter powers and a constant annealing temperature of 450°C. One step deposition with in-situ annealing was performed in order to avoid the individual metal losses during the process. Effects of various deposition parameters were investigated to finely control the elemental ratio of the quaternary target which in-turn helps to obtain the desired stoichiometry suitable for solar absorber materials as confirmed from EDS analysis. The phase purity of thin films was investigated and confirmed using XRD and Raman spectroscopy. A thin film solar cell device with n-CdS, ZnO, ZnO:Al layers and Al grids over the prepared kesterite CZTX (X = S, Se) films were deposited on Mo coated soda lime glass using complete vacuum deposition technique. Even though the optical, electrical and structural results are promising, the conversion efficiency for these single step processed CZTSe and CZTS solar cell devices were limited to 3.72% and 2.6% due to possible interface effect and smaller grain size of the deposited films. Considering the industrial fabrication of kesterite thin film solar cells, this processes assures an environmental friendly approach with inherent purity leading to one-step reduction in the mass production process.

Single-Step Green Synthesis of Iron Nanoparticles in the Aqueous Phase for Catalytic Application in Degradation of Malachite Green

The goal of the research was to devise a simple and environment-friendly approach to synthesize iron nanoparticles (FeNPs) and evaluate the catalytic activity of biosynthesized FeNPs for the degradation of the cationic dye Malachite Green (MG) in the presence of Peroxomonosulphate (PMS). Different instrumental approaches were used to characterize green produced FeNPs, and the results show that the NPs are spherical and 48 nm in size. Increasing the concentrations of nanoparticles (0.5 × 10-8 - 2.0 × 10-8 mol/dm3), Peroxomonosulphate (1.0 × 10-4 - 5.0 × 10-4 mol/dm3), dye (1.0 × 10-5 - 5.0 × 10-5 mol/dm3), pH (5), and high temperature (25-35 °C) enhanced the degradation kinetics of Pseudo-first-order kinetics were used to describe the degradation of MG in the FeNPs/PMS system, and activation parameters were derived. The maximum MG degrading efficiency for the FeNPs/PMS system was 88% in 60 minutes under optimum reaction conditions. The structure of intermediates formed by MG degradation by FeNPs/PMS was determined using UV-vis spectrum analysis. The application of synthesized FeNPs to improve Peroxomonosulphate oxidation potential for MG degradation is a unique, efficient, promising, and eco-friendly technology because it does not require any expensive reagents.

Toxicity assessment of the utilization of AOD slag as a mineral fertilizer for pakchoi (Brassica chinensis L.) planting

The application of argon oxygen decarburization (AOD) slag as a mineral fertilizer can be employed as an effective and environment-friendly approach. In this study, batch leaching tests and pot experiments were performed to assess the toxicity exhibited by AOD slag fertilization for pakchoi (Brassica chinensis L.) planting. pH, Eh and element leaching concentration were measured to examine the effect exerted by AOD slag addition on physicochemical properties exhibited by soil. The effect of AOD slag fertilization on pakchoi growth was determined by measuring its physiological and biochemical parameters. Moreover, the heavy metal accumulation, biological accumulation coefficient (BAC), estimated daily intake (EDI) and target hazard quotient (THQ) were identified to assess the health risks. As indicated from the result, adding AOD slag could increase pH and the leaching concentrations of Ca, Si, Cr and Ti, while decreasing the leaching concentrations of Fe, Ni, Cd, Hg and Pb in soil. With the increase in the addition rate, the concentrations of Mg, Al and Mn were elevated and then started to decrease at the rates of 2%, 8% and 2%, respectively. Low rates (≤1%) of AOD slag fertilization positively impacted pakchoi growth, whereas high rates exerted an opposed effect. The calculated EDI and THQ values were all less than 1. The consumption of the pakchoi grown on the AOD slag fertilized soil was at low risk. For plant growth perspective, the utilization amount of AOD slag as a mineral fertilizer for pakchoi planting should not exceed 1%.

Ultrafine CuS anchored on nitrogen and sulfur Co-doped graphene for selective CO2 electroreduction to formate

Electrochemical conversion of CO2 into hydrocarbons can effectively alleviate the energy crisis and promote carbon cycle. Herein, we report that small-size CuS nanoparticles are confined in nitrogen and sulfur co-doped reduced graphene oxide (CuS/N,S-rGO) for electrochemically reducing CO2 to formate. Specifically, the CuS/N,S-rGO electrode achieves maximum Faradaic efficiency of 82% for formate formation at −0.63 V versus the reversible hydrogen electrode (RHE). Moreover, this catalyst exhibits a stable performance during 20 h-electrolysis. Experiments demonstrate that the doping of nitrogen and sulfur can create an abundance of active sites on the graphene nanosheets to accelerate the CO2 reduction reaction (CO2RR). The CuS/N,S-rGO electrode exhibits excellent performance for CO2RR is attributed to the synergistic effect between N,S-rGO and CuS, and graphene can improve stability of composite. This work provides an efficient electrocatalyst for CO2RR and offers a facile and environmental friendly approach to synthesize small-size Cu-based composites.

Environmental assessment of soil quality indices using near infrared reflectance spectroscopy

The main purpose of this preset study is to assess soil quality indices in form of potassium (K) and phosphorus (P) contents using a non-invasive and environmental friendly approach namely near infrared reflectance spectroscopy. Soil samples were obtained from Aceh Besar district in rice field land-use. Near infrared spectral data of soil samples were acquired and recorded as absorbance in wavelength range from 1000 to 2500 nm. On the other hand, actual P and K were measured using standard laboratory procedures by means of Kjeldahl methods. Spectral data were corrected and pre-treated using mean centering approach and applied to all dataset. Prediction models were developed using principal component regression and validated using leverage cross validation. The results showed that both soil quality indices can be predicted with maximum correlation coefficient (r) of 0.98 and ratio prediction to deviation (RPD) index of 3.47 for P, and r of 0.91, RPD of 2.68 for K respectively. It may conclude that environmental assessment, particularly for soil quality determination can be conducted rapidly and non-invasively using near infrared spectroscopy approach.

Kermes oak (Quercus coccifera L.) extract for a biogenic and eco-benign synthesis of silver nanoparticles with efficient biological activities

Green chemistry applications in nanoparticle synthesis using plant extracts is an eco-friendly approach in material science. Metallic nanoparticles with potent bioactivities have been synthesized using plant extracts. Here, we describe an environmental-friendly approach for synthesizing silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) using the aqueous leaf extract of kermes oak (Quercus coccifera L.). The extract was first analyzed for its content, after which it was utilized for the AgNPs synthesis. The synthesis optimization was performed via the adjustment of different parameters such as the concentrations of components and reaction time using UV–visible spectroscopy. The NPs characterization was performed using DLS, SEM, FTIR, XRF, and SEM-EDS techniques. The antibacterial, antioxidant, and antidiabetic effects of AgNPs were tested. Results demonstrated the rich content of the extract in terms of phenolic and flavonoid compounds. AgNPs were spherical-shaped with a size ranging between 50–70 nm. They demonstrated distinct antioxidant (EC50=32.91 μg/mL) and deglycation (IC50=41.62 μg/mL) activities as well as a potent antimicrobial activity against various pathogens (Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecium, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Salmonella enteritidis, Salmonella typhimurium, Listeria monocytogenes, Candida albicans). The current findings highlight the potential of Quercus coccifera L. as a biological material for various biomedical applications.

Formalin fumigation and steaming of various composts differentially influence the nutrient release, growth and yield of muskmelon (Cucumis melo L.)

Nutrient disorder and presence of disease-causing agents in soilless media negatively influence the growth of muskmelon. To combat these issues, use of environmentally-friendly sanitation techniques is crucial for increased crop productivity. The study was conducted under greenhouse and field conditions to investigate the effect of two different sanitation techniques: steaming and formalin fumigation on various media’s characteristics and their impact on muskmelon yield. Media: jantar, guar, wheat straw and rice hull and peat moss of 10% air-filled porosity and sanitized with formalin and steaming. Steaming of guar, jantar, and wheat straw increased the phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) concentrations by 13.80–14.86% and 6.22–8.45% over formalin fumigation. Likewise, P and K concentrations in muskmelon were higher under steaming. Steaming significantly inhibited the survival of Fusarium wilt sp. melonis, root knot nematode sp. meloidogyne and nitrifying bacteria in media than formalin fumigation. In conclusion, steaming decreased the prevalence of nitrifying bacteria and pathogens which thus improved the NO3−–N:NH4+–N ratios, P and K nutritional balance both in the media and muskmelon transplants. Hence, steaming as an environment-friendly approach is recommended for soilless media. Further, optimization of steaming for various composts with different crops needs to be investigated with steaming teachnique.

Green Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles Using Azadiracta indica and Gardenia gummifera Plant Extract

In material science, nanotechnology is considered as most common active area of research. Nanotechnology deals with the nanoparticles having a size range of 1-100nm used in medicinal chemistry, atomic physics. Nowadays, the use of metal nanoparticles in areas such molecular diagnostics and drug delivery, imaging, sensing has been of great scientific interest as a result of their peculiar optoelectronic and physicochemical properties. Thus synthesis of metal nanoparticles through effective, environmental friendly and cheaper approach is very important in nanotechnology research. In the current study Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) were incorporated utilizing Azadiracta indica and Gardenia gummifera plant separate alongside their antimicrobial action. Silver had been a subject of interest from past a very long time because of its physical and chemical properties. Further depiction of mixed nanoparticles was finished by using Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The combined AgNPs were found with the size scope of 60-80nm. Antimicrobial movement of AgNPs was considered in contrast to S. aureus, E. coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Thus the results indicate that the AgNPs may have an application in medical science.

A sustainable approach for degradation and detoxification of malachite green by an engineered polyphenol oxidase at high temperature

Laccases are green biocatalysts that are advantageous in the bioremediation of the triphenylmethane dye malachite green (MG). Here, Cblac from Caldicellulosiruptor bescii was characterized to be a novel DUF152 laccase. Cblac mutant Mut8 was designed with enhanced thermostability, which was demonstrated by the Thermofluor assay, circular dichroism spectrum, and structural analyses. MG bioremediation by Mut8 at high temperatures was performed and examined for its potential to degrade and detoxify the high-temperature MG effluent. Approximately 100% of 100 mg/L of MG was degraded by 40 U/L of Mut8 within 2 h at 75 °C. Mut8 initiated the degradation via oxidative cleavage of the central C–C bond and N-demethylation of MG, and the intermediates were further demethylated, hydroxylated and oxidized. Moreover, the systematic toxicity assessment of the MG degradation products using bacteria, Zea mays, and zebrafish demonstrated that Mut8 thoroughly eliminated MG toxicity. Taken together, Mut8 could effectively decolorize and detoxify MG at high temperatures, showing great promise as an environmental friendly and effective approach to remediate MG effluent immediately released from the dyeing process, thus avoiding the cooling process and lowering the cost simultaneously.

Exploration on the Enhancement of Detoxification Ability of Zearalenone and Its Degradation Products of Aspergillus niger FS10 under Directional Stress of Zearalenone.

Zearalenone (ZEN) is one of the most common mycotoxin contaminants in food. For food safety, an efficient and environmental-friendly approach to ZEN degradation is significant. In this study, an Aspergillus niger strain, FS10, was stimulated with 1.0 μg/mL ZEN for 24 h, repeating 5 times to obtain a stressed strain, Zearalenone-Stressed-FS10 (ZEN-S-FS10), with high degradation efficiency. The results show that the degradation rate of ZEN-S-FS10 to ZEN can be stabilized above 95%. Through metabolomics analysis of the metabolome difference of FS10 before and after ZEN stimulation, it was found that the change of metabolic profile may be the main reason for the increase in the degradation rate of ZEN. The optimization results of degradation conditions of ZEN-S-FS10 show that the degradation efficiency is the highest with a concentration of 104 CFU/mL and a period of 28 h. Finally, we analyzed the degradation products by UPLC-q-TOF, which shows that ZEN was degraded into two low-toxicity products: C18H22O8S (Zearalenone 4-sulfate) and C18H22O5 ((E)-Zearalenone). This provides a wide range of possibilities for the industrial application of this strain.

Facile and economical, single-step single-chemical method for conversion of palm oil fuel ash waste into graphene nanosheets

Palm oil fuel ash (POFA) is a waste material generated in large quantities by palm oil industry worldwide. To avoid the rising disposal costs and environmental issues, its positive and cost-effective utilization is the urgent requirement. An economical, single-step, and green chemical method has been adopted in this study to convert as received waste byproduct, POFA, from oil palm mills to produce precious "POFA derived graphene (PDG) nanosheets." The results analyses from different latest instrumental techniques like Raman, High-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) and Atomic force microscopy (AFM) confirmed the successful synthesis of 1–8 layer PDG nanosheets with high yield (> 25 wt%). Parameters like temperature, the ratio of KOH: POFA, and reaction time were optimized to get the maximum yield and removal of all inorganic impurities up to < 0.5 wt.% in the final sample. Clean and smooth edges of PDG with hexagonal rings were also observed using HRTEM. In addition, the surface area of PDG was improved up to 1506.60 m2/g along with a high degree of porosity. Waste POFA ash as the cheapest carbon precursor used for the first time to synthesize economical graphene using a single-step, single chemical method. As a low cost carbon source, POFA, proves to be economical for scalable and sustainable production of PDG and presents an environment-friendly approach towards a green environment, besides promoting the circular economy concept.

A Review: Effects of air, water and land dumpsite on human health and analytical methods for determination of pollutants

Environment pollutants are found here and there in developing countries and these contaminations affect the environment adversely. A few remediation of pollution which includes incineration which is the waste treatment process that involves the combustion of organic substances contained in waste material, the waste handling practices, the recycling resource recovery, the avoidance and reduction methods, the adsorption based on nanotechnology and the bioremediation technology which appears as a cost-effective and environmental friendly approach for cleanup. Recently researches shows that various chemicals (VOCs, BTEX, heavy metals) that might be delivered into the air or water can cause unfriendly health effects which was analyzed based on sample treatments (solid phase extraction: SPE, the liquid-liquid microextraction: LLME, the magnetic solid phase extraction: MSPE) and instruments such as ET-AAS, F-AAS and GC-FID methods. The related weight of disease can be substantial, and interest in research on health effects and intervention in explicit populations and openness circumstances is significant for the development of control systems. Pollution control and determination is thusly a significant segment of disease control, and health experts and analytical chemistry specialists need to foster associations with different areas to recognize and carry out need interventions.

Fabricating lignin-containing cellulose nanofibrils with unique properties from agricultural residues with assistance of deep eutectic solvents

Lignocellulosic biomass-derived nanocellulose has been attracting more and more attentions due to its distinguished advantages and various applications, but its development has been restricted by the preparation especially with environmental friendly approach. Herein, lignin-containing cellulose nanofibrils (LCNF) was prepared from corncob via the combined pretreatment of choline chloride-based DES (ChCl-DES) and enzymatic hydrolysis followed by high-pressure homogenization. The effects of different types of ChCl-DES on the properties of LCNF were investigated and compared. The results showed that LCNF can be successfully fabricated through the combined pretreatments; the LCNF had an average diameter of 60–90 nm, exhibited good fluorescence, high thermal stability (up to 353 °C of Tmax), hydrophobicity, stability, and redispersibility in organic solvent; AC-LCNF showed well oriented arrangement, the highest hydrophobicity and fluorescence, and distinguished redispersibility especially in DMSO. ChCl-DES as one green and sustainable approach would realize efficient separation and high value-added utilization of agricultural residues.

Biodiesel fuel purification in a continuous centrifugal contactor separator: An environmental-friendly approach

Wet washing is the most common method for biodiesel purification, but higher water consumption, longer purification time, and high expenses bring limitations on the use of this process. One of the suitable methods to remove such limitations is to use new techniques for purification. In this study, biodiesel purification was evaluated in a novel continuous centrifugal contactor separator (CCCS) at 0.5:1, 1:1, and 1.5:1 (V/V%)water to biodiesel ratio; 10 Hz, 20 Hz, and 30 Hz device working frequency; and 25 °C, 40 °C, and 55 °C temperatures. A mathematical model for the wet-washing process of biodiesel and energy consumption of the CCCS device using the response surface method is proposed. A 0.8:1 (V/V%) water to biodiesel ratio, 10 Hz working frequency, and 35 °C temperature were found to be the optimal conditions in the experiment. At this point, the biodiesel yield and the amount of energy consumption were reported to be 96% and 17 kJ, respectively. The results showed that compared to the traditional wet washing method, the biodiesel purification method using CCCS is cost-effective and consumes more than 75% less of water.

Surface-mediated periodate activation by nano zero-valent iron for the enhanced abatement of organic contaminants

Periodate (PI)-based advanced oxidation processes have recently received increasing attentions. Herein, PI was readily activated by nano zero-valent iron (nZVI) and subsequently led to the enhanced oxidation of organic contaminants, with the removal performance of sulfadiazine (SDZ) in the nZVI/PI process even higher than that in the nZVI/peroxydisulfate process under identical conditions. Kinetic experiments indicated that the decay of SDZ was susceptible to the dosage of nZVI and PI, but was barely affected by pH values (4.0–7.0) under buffered conditions, suggesting the promising performance of the nZVI/PI process in a relatively wide pH range. Selective degradation of contaminants and 18O-isotope labeling assays collectively demonstrated that iodate radical (•IO3), high-valent iron-oxo species (Fe(IV)) and hydroxyl radical (•OH) were responsible for the abatement of organic contaminants. More importantly, due to the relatively weak steric hindrance effect of PI, PI easily adsorbed on the surface of nZVI and no iron leaching was detected throughout the reaction, implying that PI activation induced by nZVI was a surface-mediated process. Besides, PI was not transformed into harmful reactive iodine species. This study proposed an environmental-friendly approach for PI activation and shed new lights on the PI-based processes.

Integrating high-efficiency oxygen evolution catalysts featuring accelerated surface reconstruction from waste printed circuit boards via a boriding recycling strategy

Converting electronic wastes into high-efficiency energy conversion catalysts is a win-win strategy in addressing the metal resources shortage and sustainable energy challenges. Herein, a facile boriding strategy is developed to directly convert the leachates of waste printed circuit boards into magnetic mixed metal borides (FeNiCuSnBs) for oxygen evolution reaction (OER) catalysts. Via the boriding process, a metal cation recovery rate of 99.78 %, 99.98 %, 99.96 %, and 99.49 % has been attained for Fe, Ni, Cu, and Sn, respectively. The obtained catalysts with a higher ratio of Ni and Fe show better OER performance. The optimal FNCSB-4 attains 10 mA cm−2 at a low overpotential of 199 mV, as well as good stability in alkaline solution. Remarkably, FNCSB-4 represents a record‐high activity among waste-derived OER electrocatalysts. In-depth study suggests that the superior OER performance is mainly owing to accelerated surface self-reconstruction by B/Sn co-etching under OER potential region, and the newly formed multimetal (oxy)hydroxides act as the active species for OER. Additionally, the efficient mass/charge transfer, the amorphous feature, and hierarchical structure also benefit OER. Apart from providing an insight into the correlation between surface self-reconstruction and OER activity of multimetal boride-based catalysts, this study also offers a general strategy for the high-efficiency recovery and advanced energy-driven applications of critical metals from other urban mines in a sustainable and environment-friendly approach.

Designing of Energy-efficient Vehicle on Existing Challenges of Electric Vehicle, a Cost Effective and Environment-friendly Approach

An electric vehicle has an electric drive motor which is coupled to drive train for converting the rotational movement of the motor into linear motion of the vehicle and an energy storage device to provide power for the motor uses. Present invention takes advantage of the powerful wind force generated by the vehicle motion. Wind driven turbine of particular design is mounted to rotate the wind energy capturing device upon or in the upper portion of the roof and other is installed under the bonnet area of an electric vehicle to transform wind energy into electrical energy for feeding such energy into the battery pack as the vehicle is being driven forward. At least six wind energy capturing devices are coupled for generating a fast electric potential for recharging the power source. Said wind energy capturing devices would be mounted on particular designed housing and suitable clamps. The motive power of the air rotates the wind-turbines, which are rotatably engaged with an armature shaft to produce electrical energy that is used to continuously recharge the batteries in all phases of road travel, that power the vehicle. Thereby driving range is extended of the vehicle between external charging cycles and reduces time required for that. The design is also prioritized Energy-efficiency and cost-effectiveness of electric vehicles. It also becomes an approach to more environment-friendly rather than the conventional vehicles.

The oxidative immobilization of phosphonate by simulated solar light mediated peroxi-coagulation process sustained by the iron-air fuel cell

Phosphonates are an important type of phosphorus-containing compounds and is of primary concern due to its eutrophication potential. Herein, we achieved simultaneously oxidative immobilization of phosphorus from ethylene diamine tetra (methylene phosphonic acid) (EDTMP) in the simulated solar light mediated peroxi-coagulation process sustained by the iron-air fuel cell (IAFC). The integration of simulated solar light irradiation with IAFC could enhance the oxidation capacity, yield of iron ions and power density output. The highest total phosphorus (TP) removal efficiency (approximately 100%) could be obtained at pH 4.0 owing to the synergistic action of coprecipitation and oxidation of EDTMP to orthophosphate (o-PO4), accompanying the optimum power density of 2459 mW m−2 at 2086 mA m−2. The OH mediated oxidation and photodegradation of Fe(III)-EDTMP complex via ligand-to-metal charge transfer reaction worked together to transform EDTMP into o-PO4. In the precipitate, the immobilized phosphorus existed mainly in the forms of organic phosphorus and o-PO4. The presence of oxalic and citric acid enhanced the yield of OH, but the formation of soluble Fe(III)-carboxylate complexes negatively affected the TP removal due to the decreased precipitation capacity. Contrastly, the observed decrease in TP removal caused by humic acid was ascribed to its scavenging effect toward OH. In general, this study proposed an energy efficient and environmental friendly approach for mitigating the potential risk of phosphonates to environmental safety.