British Planning System Research Articles

Ende des regionalen Experiments? Eine Bilanz der Reform des englischen Planungssystems unter New Labour

The English planning system underwent a series of remarkable reforms under the New Labour governments between 1997–2010. After the hollowing out of planning functions under the previous conservative governments, planning regained a new significance on the political agenda. First, there was a turn from the traditional paradigm of land-use-planning to a more strategically oriented Spatial Planning approach. Second, the institutional landscape was subjected to a far-reaching reallocation of competences between the local and the revalued regional level. The article resumes this process which was stopped abruptly after the change in government of 2010. It analyzes the implementation of the reforms drawing on two in depth case studies. An evaluation of the reforms identifies the strengths and also the obstacles of the far-reaching transformation in the highly politicized English planning landscape. A discussion of the future of planning after the preliminary end of the regional experiment concludes this article.

Processes of Innovation: Reformation of the English Strategic Spatial Planning System

Using the 2001–2010 reform of the English spatial planning system, this research addresses the key planning theory and practice question of how new agendas travel and are adopted through the planning system. As part of this reform, an extensive range of agencies and texts were used to convey new practices to local planners. Informed by Healey's (2006) model of a concept's capacity to travel, and using an actant network-inspired investigative approach, this research reviews key reform texts and how three key messages—flexibility, evidence-based policy, and infrastructure provision—travelled and were transformed through the intermediaries and mediators entangled in the newly reformed spatial planning assemblage. The research finds that a number of key intermediaries played an educative role in the reformed planning system and that the space of negotiation which would have encouraged exploration and innovation became congested with well-intentioned but prescriptive advice which led local planning authorities to be increasingly circumscribed in their approaches.

Climate Risk and Security: New Meanings of “the Environment” in the English Planning System

Planning in England1 represents an important arena for the development and contestation of environmental discourses. Over the last century the changing assumptions about human-nature relationship have led to numerous meanings of “the environment” in planning. These have in turn influenced the choices made between: preserving, enhancing, protecting, compromising, trading, exploiting or guarding against, the environment. While recognizing the nuances of the environmental discourses, this paper identifies eight distinct meanings of the environment in contemporary plans including the environment: as local amenity, as heritage landscape, as nature reserve, as storehouse of resources, as tradable commodity, as problem, as sustainability and as risk. The latter has emerged as a result of growing climate change awareness. The paper argues that, while the emphasis on climate change mitigation has reinforced some aspects of the sustainability discourse, the adaptation agenda has introduced a new meaning of the environment as risk. This portrays the environment not so much in terms of assets to be sustained for human benefit, but in terms of threats against which human well-being should be safeguarded. Framed in the language of risk and security, this new discourse is bringing to the fore some of the outmoded approaches to planning.

Conference report: Planning Resilient Communities in Challenging Times, UK/Ireland Planning Research Conference, Birmingham, 12–14 September 2011

The 2011 UK/Ireland Planning Research Conference (UK/I PRC), jointly organised by the University of Birmingham and Birmingham City University, was held at the Birmingham Business School, located in the pleasant university surroundings of the city's leafy Edgbaston district (Figure 1). The conference came at a time when the Coalition Government's proposed changes to the English planning system had been experiencing substantial coverage in the national press, and so this left no shortage of topics for discussion. The 2011 conference theme was based around the increasingly vogue subject of 'resilience'. The University of Birmingham is currently running a major crossdisciplinary initiative on resilience and urban living, and so the conference theme is partially an outcome of a continuing research focus at the university. The organisers hoped the concept of resilient communities in the face of changing contexts would provide a broad thematic overview for discussions around various current issues in planning. As usual, the UK/I PRC brought together researchers with a wide variety of interests related to planning, governance and the environment. The participant list for the conference contained 203 names from a variety of institutions (Figure 2). Thirtynine of the delegates had travelled from outside the UK and Ireland, coming from 14 countries, including Russia, Canada, South Africa and Australia. Opening session The 2012 conference was opened by the geographer Adam Tickell, in his role as Pro-Vice Chancellor of the University of Birmingham. In a short welcoming address he drew upon Birmingham's industrial development history in advocating the suitability of the city as the location for a planning research conference. Mel Lees (Head of the Faculty of Technology, Engineering and the Environment, Birmingham City University) also welcomed delegates, referring to the 'great post-industrial city that is Birmingham'. Peter Lee (University of Birmingham) spoke of the 'very deep' foundations of Birmingham's local governance. Bringing the discussion closer to the present, he cited the city's current major regeneration projects - a new central library and a revamped New Street railway station, including the proposed HS2 high-speed rail line to London. However, recent riots and the dropping of the city from the Lonely Planet series of guidebooks (which had in previous years featured Birmingham as a contemporary 'chic' destination) were indications of the challenges still being faced. Plenary keynote addresses Simin Davoudi (University of Newcastle upon Tyne) gave the first keynote address, opening her presentation by suggesting that planners in England were currently experiencing a 'particularly heightened sense of [...] uncertainty', with attacks on the value of their professional contributions to society, and contended that planning is facing a crisis. She then explored the specific theme of the conference and delivered a scholarly exploration of the concept of 'resilience', its etymological origins, definitions and role in contemporary public policy debates. Resilience has recently begun to replace 'sustainability' as the latest planning 'buzz' word, she suggested - indeed, citations in the social sciences literature increased by 400 per cent between 1997 and 2007. But, like its predecessor, the precise meaning of 'resilience' when used in such a context remains 'slippery'. Drawing upon the conceptual apparatus of complexity theory, Davoudi then highlighted how resilience often implies the ability of something (or somewhere) to 'bounce back' from negative external perturbations. But this is often seen as a 'return to normal without questioning what normality entails'. Drawing a contrast to this common view, she outlined the concept of 'evolutionary resilience', where there is not a 'return' to a pre-defined normality, but instead an ability to adapt, transform and evolve in response to disequilibrium. …

A New Framework of Urban and Rural Planning System in Guangdong

As the "Urban and Rural Planning Law " had been promulgated in 2008, the paper studied the context of socio-economic development and the actual situation of urban and rural development in Guangdong Province, drawing on the experience of the British planning system, proposing the framework of urban and rural planning system as "Provincial Spatial Plan" and "Local Development Plan", which including urban system planning, master plan, detailed plan, village plan four types. The new framework will streamline the planning system, reduce the levels of planning and clear the relationship between different types of planning, contributing to regional coordination in urban and rural areas.

Culture Change as Identity Regulation: The Micro-Politics of Producing Spatial Planners in England

Attempts to reform planning systems often draw into question the attitudes and commitments of the planners charged with realising change. Since 2001 the English planning system has been subject to a complex series of reforms designed to modernise its workings. Central to this have been calls for a culture change, focusing on professional planners in the public sector. The discourse of culture change is rooted in the managerialist thinking that has been central to long-term processes of state restructuring. Du Gay describes this as a project designed to change the identities of public servants. This article therefore explores the messy ways in which reform has sought to re-regulate the identities of English planners, and the response from planners themselves as they have begun to negotiate these changes to their identities and practices. It is argued that attentiveness to the lived experience of change can help to inform a more critical and nuanced account of the normative promises of planning reform.

Discretion and expediency in the enforcement of planning controls

The enforcement of planning controls in the British planning system is an activity that exhibits a high degree of discretion in decision-making. Local planning authorities are empowered to enforce against breaches of planning control where they consider it 'expedient' to do so. The paper addresses the concepts of discretion and expediency in relation to planning enforcement. It traces the evolution of discretionary enforcement in British planning legislation and relates this to the formally stated purposes of enforcement action, as well as the various considerations of local planning authorities in determining whether it is expedient to take enforcement action. The paper concludes that there is a significant degree of ambiguity in the purposes of enforcement action in Britain, each with their own characteristic basis for discretionary decision-making.

Getting Involved in Plan Making: Participation and Stakeholder Involvement in Local and Regional Spatial Strategies in England

In 2004 the English planning system was subject to extensive reforms which introduced a ‘spatial planning’ approach that goes beyond traditional land-use planning in integrating policies for the development and use of land with other policies and programmes which influence the nature of places. At the regional level, regional planning guidance was replaced by regional spatial strategies (RSSs) and, at the local level, existing local land-use planning documents were replaced with a portfolio of documents that make up the new local development framework (LDF). Together, the LDF and RSS make up the statutory development plan for an area. At the heart of the new spatial planning reforms is a heightened emphasis on stakeholder and community involvement. This paper brings together research at two different spatial scales. The ‘Spatial Plans in Practice’ study examined stakeholder involvement in LDF preparation across England. Parallel research examined the experience of stakeholders in the formation of the North West RSS. Drawing on this empirical base, we examine experiences of stakeholder involvement in the reformed spatial planning system and discuss the implications for the future.

From land-use to 'spatial planning': Reflections on the reform of the English planning system

The reform of the English planning system effected by the 2004 Planning and Compulsory Purchase Act sought to re-brand planning as a positive instrument designed to help maintain, create and/or recreate sustainable communities. The terminology through which this purported transition from a system which was perceived to be regulatory and bureaucratic in character to one in which practising planners coordinate, orchestrate and manage the changing nature of communities is very much redolent of the vocabulary by which the political philosophy of the Third Way has been communicated. In this article, we explore the origins of the new system in these political ideals and the extent to which English planners are, in accord with the intentions of the new system, reaching beyond narrow land-use regulation to develop a more coordinated and consensus-based approach to planning practice. The article draws upon the results of a major three-year research project Spatial Plans in Practice, funded by the UK government, to...

Approaches to Democratic Involvement: Widening Community Engagement in the English Planning System

Participation has become integral to the delivery of public services, as governments attempt to involve citizens in decision making through processes of consultation and engagement. This paper addresses the issue of community participation in the context of the English planning system, which has recently been restructured to focus more sharply on integrating communities in the planning process. It presents findings of research into the workings of the reformed planning system, in particular in relation to the objective of public participation, using the case of the Planning Aid service. The paper sets the discussion in the context of two different forms of democracy (representative and deliberative democracy) and associated strategies for participation. It then outlines the recent reforms in the planning system, highlighting the different approaches to participation that are being applied. The paper then examines the case of Planning Aid, a service that aims to involve disadvantaged groups in the planning system. The paper concludes that the outcomes from recent experiences of participation in planning are in part due to the “hybrid” approaches that are emerging within the system. While this provides the potential for more inclusive planning, it is argued that this “hybridity” needs to be acknowledged by policy makers and practitioners if strategies and mechanisms are to be put in place that respond to the demands of different forms of democracy.

Monitoring brownfield housing development: strengths and weaknesses of indicator based monitoring in the English planning system

In England quantified targets for the reuse of brownfields and of existing buildings place particular requirements on the planning system as part of the overall strategy to make effective use of natural resources. Achieving these targets is not free of obstacles and potential conflicts. Therefore monitoring of policy implementation is a necessity in the planning system. In addition challenging targets for increased housing provision have been introduced. In view of this the dichotomy of adequate housing-land supply without compromising environmental quality must be addressed. As a consequence monitoring will play an increasingly important role. This paper explores how these challenges can be met. It draws upon practical experience across all planning tiers to highlight the potential and limitations of indicator based monitoring.

Minerals Planning in The Netherlands compared to the U.K.

In May 2003, the Dutch government announced the withdrawal of the government's role in mineral planning and raw materials supply. This meant that the clock had been turned back to 1976. By now the established planning system has been run down almost completely. The Dutch raw materials policy is based on only a few statements in the government's National Spatial Plan. Meanwhile import of aggregates from our surrounding countries is growing. In this article the down-fall of the Dutch minerals planning system is examined. In this article a comparison is made with the British planning system, which is still working. England has in contrast to The Netherlands a considerably higher level of self supporting.

Environmental assessment in the british planning system

It is commonly held that the most effective environmental protection policies address the prevention rather than the cure of the effects of pollution. Chris Stone and Sue Walker discuss the nature of environmental impact assessment, a major preventative tool in environmental policy, and offer practical insights from an appraisal of a new ski development in the Scottish Highlands.

Planning, liberty and the rule of law

The article aims to demonstrate that neither the British planning system nor Continental planning systems adhere perfectly to the classical (liberal) ideal of the rule of law. It suggests a different approach to the regulation of land use more in line with this ideal, based on the assumption that it is not only relevant but also one that cannot be renounced. The objective is to show that the more complex an (urban) system becomes, the greater is the need for abstract, general and end-independent rules to favour a sort of beneficial, spontaneous order — self-coordinating and polycentric — of individual actions.

A smooth progression? From forward planning to development control for opencast coal mining in the light of current planning review

Recent concern and debate over the effectiveness of the British planning system has focused on uncertainty and delay in application outcomes, coordination among, and prescriptive value of, different types of plans and the degree of engagement of communities. This paper contributes to the debate by reviewing the planning procedures for opencast coal mine development and presenting empirical findings on their implementation in the mid 1990s when conflicts of interest were particularly pronounced and when changes in the attitude towards coal's importance to the national interest were discernible. By investigating a contentious type of development and identifying the nature, and the range of interests involved, a number of points relevant to this debate arise. These concern the value of development plans as guiding documents both for developers and the general public; difficulties in involving the public and generating consensus at the forward planning stage and associated impacts at the development control stages; and the importance of the type of development to resolving conflict.

Delivering the planning system in England: Skills' capacity constraints

The planning system in England has recently undergone revision. At the same time local planning authorities are being required to implement new government initiatives, reviews and recently enacted EU legislation. All these changes are bringing in new ways of working for local authorities and sending the English planning system into a period of flux. Drawing on recent research the authors consider whether there is the capacity in terms of skills within local planning authorities in England for them to deliver the outcomes required by these changes.

Controlling urban sprawl: Some experiences from Liverpool

The control of urban sprawl is one of the key issues challenging planners in many countries. Whilst a substantial discourse has developed in North America, it is also a matter of key concern for British and European planners, although here the debate is often expressed in terms of urban containment and the search for compact cities. This article considers the development of policies for the control of urban sprawl within the British planning system and examines their implementation and effectiveness within one city region: the Liverpool conurbation. Despite the considerable achievements of British policy in controlling urban sprawl and encouraging urban regeneration over the last two decades, there remain some doubts as to how much further market forces can be directed towards the production of more compact cities. In particular, a number of commentators, notably Breheny [Urban compaction: feasible and acceptable? Cities 14 (1997) 209–217], have raised doubts about the feasibility and acceptability of urban compaction to populations whose main housing location aspiration is for suburban living. Evidence in this paper is drawn from the analysis of secondary data for the Liverpool conurbation as well as the results of surveys of recently moving households carried out by the authors. This evidence suggests that despite recent progress, these market forces continue to represent a major challenge to policy makers in promoting the compact city.

Monitoring Spatial Strategies: The Case of Local Development Documents in England

Since its recent overhaul, the British planning system has placed a strong emphasis on the development of ‘spatial’ rather than purely ‘land-use’ plans, and on the importance of adopting a systematic approach towards strategy monitoring. Such an evidence-based approach to spatial planning is already in use at the pan-European level and in Northern America. The authors aim to discuss the latest methodological developments in the monitoring of complex spatial strategies by examining the monitoring framework for local development documents in England. They examine the concept of spatial planning, issues and challenges surrounding spatial policy monitoring, and some emerging views over policy monitoring and evaluation. They then discuss the relevance of these latest ideas and different design principles of indicator frameworks to underpin the development of a monitoring framework for local development documents. Six core design components are discussed: the structure – performance model; the objectives – targets – indicators approach; a nested hierarchy of indicators; a framework of indicators; the use of analytical indicator bundles; and analytical principles. The authors identify the gaps and challenges in the developing monitoring framework for spatial planning in England and the wider, transferable, lessons to be learnt for complex policy monitoring.

Managing Diversity and Mainstreaming Equality: Reflections on Initiatives in the Planning Inspectorate

The Planning Inspectorate is a key institution in the English planning system which has a high public profile. It is a planning agency of the UK central government which is responsible for determining appeals against the refusal of planning permission and conditions imposed on development by local planning authorities. It also determines appeals against enforcement action on unlawful development and holds public local inquiries, where planning inspectors hear objections to policies contained in development plans. The decisions made by the Planning Inspectorate must be seen to be fair, transparent and accountable and, as a consequence, the procedures and conduct of the organisation are increasingly subject to public scrutiny. However the arena in which the Inspectorate now operates has become increasingly more complex. Significant social change has impacted on space, spatial activities and the way people use space. Campaigns around the issues of race, gender, disability, age and sexuality have challenged the notion of a homogeneous public and developed the view of a socially and culturally diverse society. As issues of diversity have become more widely recognised and expressed in society, so the UK government has expected key planning organisations, such as the Planning Inspectorate, to reflect and respond to these changes, particularly in the light of the new Planning and Compulsory Purchase Act 2004. This paper examines the initiatives undertaken to mainstream equality and manage diversity in the Planning Inspectorate. It critically reflects on the scope and effectiveness of the initiatives and identifies lessons that can be learned for other planning institutions. The material used in the paper draws heavily on three sources: consultancy work undertaken for the Planning Inspectorate; documentary analysis; and case study material and findings from a recent research project into planning and diversity

A public university as city planner and developer: Experience in the “capital of gfood planning”

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes 1. Quote from official website of the State of Oregon's Land Conservation and Development Commission, www.lcd.state.or.us/LCD/goals. 2. www.parks.ci.portland.or.us/Parks/SouthParkBlocks.htm. 3. American zoning ordinances typically establish zoning districts within which various land uses are either allowed ‘by right’ or prohibited. A ‘conditional use’ is a use which is neither allowed by right nor prohibited; rather it is a use which may be prohibited or allowed depending on the merits of the case—as is the case with virtually all proposed developments under the British planning system. 4. It is important to note that the mixed-use requirement applied to all development, including university buildings. Thus, all new university buildings in the University District must include commercial uses on the ground floor. 5. The aim of integrating PSU into the University District was achieved in part by incorporating commercial uses into the ground floors of new university buildings, in accordance with the City's zoning ordinance. The aim of integrating the University with its community was also achieved by undertaking scattered site, as opposed to contiguous, university development. 6. One other factor that readers should be aware of that helps assure that local governments and public agencies in Oregon act in accordance with statewide goals and adopted plans is the existence of 1000 Friends of Oregon, an independent, non-profit organisation that was instrumental in achieving passage of Oregon's planning system in 1973. 1000 Friends of Oregon continues to serve a ‘watchdog function’ to make sure that public agencies fulfill their responsibilities and act in accordance with adopted plans. In cases when governments and public agencies have not acted in accordance with adopted plans and state policies, 1000 Friends has not hesitated to file suit in court to force compliance. 7. For example, Trinity College, Union College, Clark University, the University of Pennsylvania and Yale University have invested millions of dollars in projects and activities intended to improve conditions in their host communities.