Ilex Aquifolium Research Articles

Cyrtidula quercus . [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria

Abstract A description is provided for Cyrtidula quercus . Some information on its dispersal and transmission and conservation status is given, along with details of its geographical distribution (USA (Missouri and Washington), Japan, Australia (Western Australia), Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Irish Republic, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Slovakia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, UK and Yugoslavia) and hosts ( Quercus sp., Alnus glutinosa, Betula sp., Corylus avellana, Corylus sp., Crataegus sp., Ilex aquifolium, Phellodendron amurense, Populus sp., Quercus garyana, Q. petraea, Q, robur and Trentepohlia sp.).

Mycomicrothelia confusa . [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria

Abstract A description is provided for Mycomicrothelia confusa . Some information on its dispersal and transmission and conservation status is given, along with details of its geographical distribution (Tanzania, USA (Texas and Wisconsin), Portugal (Azores), Austria, Estonia, Finland, France, Irish Republic, Italy, Norway, Russia (Kaliningrad Oblast, Oryol Oblast, Republic of Mordovia and Ryazan Oblast), Spain, Ukraine and UK), hosts ( Corylus sp., Alnus sp., Betula sp., Corylus avellana , Crataegus sp., Fraxinus sp., Ilex aquifolium, Ilex sp., Populus tremula, Quercus sp., Sorbus aucuparia, Sorbus sp. and Tilia sp.) and associated organisms ( Naetrocymbe nitescens and Trentepohlia sp.).

An ethnobotanical study among Albanians and Aromanians living in the Rraicë and Mokra areas of Eastern Albania

Ethnobotanical research in South-Eastern Europe is crucial for providing the baseline data needed for both implementing community-based management of the local natural resources and (further) developing small-scale markets of local herbal and food products. An ethnobotanical study was carried out among (Muslim) Albanians and (Christian Orthodox) Aromanians living in the Rraice and Mokra areas of Eastern Albania. The survey was conducted by interviewing 36 local, elderly individuals from five villages regarding the traditional uses of wild food plants, medicinal foods, and home-made medical remedies devoted to both humans and animals. Thirty-six plant taxa were found to comprise the local wild food cuisine as well as the cuisine of medicinal foods and cultivated plants prepared in unusual ways; 59 plant taxa were used in human folk medicine and 20 plant taxa in local ethnoveterinary practices. In total, 221 preparations, the large majority plant-based, were recorded. Among the findings, the uncommon food uses of potato leaves as a vegetable and lacto-fermented potato tubers (until the recent past), the widespread use of Chenopodium and Rumex spp. as wild vegetables, as well as the leaves of Ilex aquifolium as a diuretic remedy, dried wild orchid tubers to treat cough and helminthiasis, and elderberry flowers to treat wounds, deserve further investigation. Approximately half of the plant uses reported by Aromanians were not recorded among Albanians, thus suggesting divergent ethnobotanical pathways, perhaps due to the different religious faiths of the two communities, which have prevented intermarriage over the last few centuries.

Trochila ilicina (Helotiales, Ascomycota), a fungus newly found in Poland

The morphological properties of <i>Trochila ilicina</i> (Helotiales, Ascomycota), a fungus previously not recorded in Poland, were described and illustrated. <i>Trochila ilicina</i> was associated with living, decaying and fallen leaves of <i>Ilex aquifolium</i>. However, this fungus formed apothecia only on leaves isolated from their plant host. Hence, <i>T. ilicina</i> was considered both a weak parasite and a saprotroph preferring decaying and necrotic leaves, and not only a saprotroph as all earlier published data suggested. This fungus has been found in different places of Szczecin, as well as in the Arboretum Glinna and the Arboretum Przelewice, north-western Poland. Additionally, the known distribution of <i>T. ilicina</i> in the world is presented.

Phytophthora root and stem rot – new disease of Ilex aquifolium "Myrtifolia” in Poland

<i>Phytophthora cinnamomi</i> was often isolated from rotted roots and stems of English holly "Myrtifolia" together with <i>Alternaria alternata, Cylindrocarpon destructanss, Fusarium avenaceum</i> and other fungal species. Inoculation of leaf blades and stem parts of 4 species and 12 holly cultivars with <i>P. cinnamomi</i> showed the spread of rot symptoms on the most of them. On <i>Ilex crenata</i> tissues necrosis did not develop or spread slowly. Isolation of <i>P. cinnamomi</i> only from one holly cultivar in surveyed nursery indicate on transmission of the pathogen with imported young plants.

FIRST REPORT OF ALTERNARIA ALTERNATA CAUSING LEAF SPOT ON HOLLY IN GREECE

A foliar disease of holly (Ilex aquifolium), observed in November 2009 in a natural ecosystem in the region of Thessaloniki (northern Greece), consisted of circular or irregularly shaped necrotic spots with yellow border, 3-7 mm in diameter, present on ca. 30% of the leaves. Small pieces of tissue at the margin of the spots were excised, surface-disinfected (1% sodium hypochlorite for 1 min) and plated on potato dextrose agar. Two single-spore cultures in potato carrot agar, gave rise to initially white colonies turning grayish-black due to abundant sporulation. Conidiophores were green to brown, short, septate, branched or unbranched. Conidia, produced in single or more often branched chains, were obpyriform, with a conical or cylindrical beak, ovoid or ellipsoidal, measured 7.7-27.4x5.6-15.0 μm (average 16.3x8.8 μm), and showed 1 to 5 transverse and 0 to 3 longitudinal septa. These morphological traits and measurements tally with those of Alternaria alternata (Fr.) Keissl. (Simmons, 2007). The ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 region of the two single-spore isolates, amplified with primers ITS1 and ITS4 and sequenced (GenBank accession Nos. JQ809323, JQ809324), revealed 100% homology with the sequence of various A. alternata isolates (e.g. JQ070079). Eight 3-year-old holly plants were sprayed with a 106 conidia/ml spore suspension, covered with a polyethylene bag for 48 h and placed in a greenhouse at 23±2°C together with sterile distilled water-sprayed controls. Leaf spots like those observed in the field developed on all inoculated plants but not on controls. A. alternata was reisolated from artificially inoculated leaves. Holly infections by A. alternata have previously been reported from Poland (Orlikowski and Szkuta, 2004), the USA and Canada (Sinclair et al., 1987) but, to our knowledge, never from Greece.

Pictures of an Invasion: English Holly (Ilex aquifolium) in a Semi-Natural Pacific Northwest Forest

English holly (Ilex aquifolium) is an increasingly common invader of west-side Pacific Northwest forests, but little sitescale information exists about the pattern and processes of this invasion. We comprehensively surveyed English holly in an 8.4 ha area of invaded forest at St. Edward State Park (WA), a largely native forest in the Seattle metropolitan area. We measured, mapped, aged, and removed all holly ≥ 1 cm basal diameter or > 1 m from the nearest sampled holly, and used these data to characterize the invading population and the course of the invasion. Holly in our sample (n = 466 known-age plants; 55.5 stems ha-1) ranged in age from 1 to 46 years. Trees ≥10 years old appeared to have very low mortality rates and exhibited accelerating rates of size increase and biomass accumulation with age. Native vegetation was greatly reduced under holly canopy. Our spatial and age data indicate that holly is proliferating and spreading rapidly at two scales: contiguous, primarily vegetative, expansion of tree clumps, and long distance dispersal via seed. Spread by both mechanisms appears to be accelerating, with population and canopy area both increasing approximately exponentially, having doubling times of approximately 6 and 5 years respectively. Projecting past spread patterns forward suggests that holly has the potential to soon become a prominent species both in number and canopy extent, likely at the expense of native plant diversity and forest structure. Based on these results, we offer recommendations for holly management in forested areas in the region.

Fuelwood, crops and acorns from Iritegi cave (Oñati, Basque Country)

We present the analyses of plant macroremains from Iritegi, a cave from Northern Iberia with archaeological levels dated from the Chalcolithic to the Iron Age. Wood charcoal assemblages are dominated throughout the sequence by Fraxinus. Other important taxa are Quercus subg. Quercus, followed by Corylus avellana, Fagus sylvatica, Ilex aquifolium, Taxus baccata and Ulmus. Acer, Alnus and Maloideae occur in very low numbers. The high percentages of Fraxinus are possibly result from the selection of ash for fodder. Evidence for the use of crops (Hordeum vulgare, Triticum aestivum/durum) comes only from the Chalcolithic contexts. The identification of acorns in one Chalcolithic hearth shows that roasting of these nuts was taking place maybe to improve taste and to facilitate further processing or to improve storage conditions. The results show that plant food gathering still played a role within the subsistence of farming human groups in the region.

Failure of Foliar-Applied Biostimulants to Enhance Drought and Salt Tolerance in Urban Trees

Urban environments present an array of environmental conditions detrimental to the biology of trees. Two major problems include deicing salts, a common soil pollutant, and drought. One potential option for managing these enviro mental disorders may be through the application of commercially available biostimulants, as these products are reported to enhance a plant's resistance to environmental stresses. Trials used containerized stock of evergreen oak (Quercus ilex), holly (Ilex aquifolium), rowan (Sorbus aucuparia), and beech (Fagus sylvatica) to evaluate the effectiveness of seven commercially available biostimulants as drought and salt protectant compounds. Results conclude that none of the biostimulants evaluated in this study provided any significant degree of salt or drought damage protection compared to water-treated controls.

Consistency and reciprocity of indirect interactions between tree species mediated by frugivorous birds

Despite the recognized importance of indirect plant–plant interactions for community structure, we still need to improve our current knowledge on how their outcomes are consistent in space and time, as well as reciprocal between participating species. These caveats are especially relevant in the case of indirect interactions mediated by animals, whose behavior may show high variability. We studied consistency and reciprocity of frugivore‐mediated interactions between fleshy‐fruited trees. For three years we examined the influence of crop size and neighborhood characteristics (con‐ and heterospecific fruit abundance and forest cover) on frugivory rates onCrataegus monogynaandIlex aquifolium, two coexisting species in the secondary forests of the Cantabrian range that share a guild of frugivorous birds. Crop size and neighborhood characteristics influenced frugivory onC. monogynaandI. aquifolium. Both con‐ and heterospecific fruit abundance affected frugivory, evidencing the occurrence of indirect interactions between trees, although the strength and sign of these effects varied between tree species as well as across years within species. By showing complex temporal patterns in the consistency and reciprocity of indirect interactions, this study emphasizes the need for multispecific, long‐term studies to assess the actual contribution of animal‐mediated plant–plant indirect interactions to community dynamics.

The past ecology of Abies alba provides new perspectives on future responses of silver fir forests to global warming

Paleoecology can provide valuable insights into the ecology of species that complement observation and experiment‐based assessments of climate impact dynamics. New paleoecological records (e.g., pollen, macrofossils) from the Italian Peninsula suggest a much wider climatic niche of the important European tree species Abies alba (silver fir) than observed in its present spatial range. To explore this discrepancy between current and past distribution of the species, we analyzed climatic data (temperature, precipitation, frost, humidity, sunshine) and vegetation‐independent paleoclimatic reconstructions (e.g., lake levels, chironomids) and use global coupled carbon‐cycle climate (NCAR CSM1.4) and dynamic vegetation (LandClim) modeling. The combined evidence suggests that during the mid‐Holocene (∼6000 years ago), prior to humanization of vegetation, A. alba formed forests under conditions that exceeded the modern (1961–1990) upper temperature limit of the species by ∼5–7°C (July means). Annual precipitation during this natural period was comparable to today (>700–800 mm), with drier summers and wetter winters. In the meso‐Mediterranean to sub‐Mediterranean forests A. alba co‐occurred with thermophilous taxa such as Quercus ilex, Q. pubescens, Olea europaea, Phillyrea, Arbutus, Cistus, Tilia, Ulmus, Acer, Hedera helix, Ilex aquifolium, Taxus, and Vitis. Results from the last interglacial (ca. 130 000–115 000 BP), when human impact was negligible, corroborate the Holocene evidence. Thermophilous Mediterranean A. alba stands became extinct during the last 5000 years when land‐use pressure and specifically excessive anthropogenic fire and browsing disturbance increased. Our results imply that the ecology of this key European tree species is not yet well understood. On the basis of the reconstructed realized climatic niche of the species, we anticipate that the future geographic range of A. alba may not contract regardless of migration success, even if climate should become significantly warmer than today with summer temperatures increasing by up to 5–7°C, as long as precipitation does not fall below 700–800 mm/yr, and anthropogenic disturbance (e.g., fire, browsing) does not become excessive. Our finding contradicts recent studies that projected range contractions under global‐warming scenarios, but did not factor how millennia of human impacts reduced the realized climatic niche of A. alba.

Vialaea insculpta revisited

Vialaea insculpta, occurring on Ilex aquifolium , is illustrated and redescribed from nature and pure culture to assess morphological features used in its classification and to report new molecular studies of the Vialaeaceae and its ordinal disposition. Tests of the germination of the distinctive ascospores in water containing parts of Ilex flowers after seven days resulted in the production of appressoria without mycelium. Phylogenetic analyses based on a fragment of ribosomal RNA gene small subunit suggest that the taxon belongs in Xylariales.

Intracuticular wax fixes and restricts strain in leaf and fruit cuticles

This paper investigates the effects of cuticular wax on the release of strain and on the tensile properties of enzymatically isolated cuticular membranes (CMs) taken from leaves of agave (Agave americana), bush lily (Clivia miniata), holly (Ilex aquifolium), and ivy (Hedera helix) and from fruit of apple (Malus × domestica), pear (Pyrus communis), and tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum). Biaxial strain release was quantified as the decrease in CM disc area following wax extraction. Stiffness, maximum strain and maximum force were determined in uniaxial tensile tests using strips of CM and dewaxed CMs (DCMs). Biaxial strain release, stiffness, and maximum strain, but not maximum force, were linearly related to the amount of wax extracted. Apple CM has the most wax and here the effect of wax extraction was substantially accounted for by the embedded cuticular wax. Heating apple CM to 80°C melted some wax constituents and produced an effect similar to, but smaller than, that resulting from wax extraction. Our results indicate that wax 'fixes' strain, effectively converting reversible elastic into irreversible plastic strain. A consequence of 'fixation' is increased cuticular stiffness.

Mammalian seed dispersal in Cantabrian woodland pastures: Network structure and response to forest loss

We evaluated the role of wild large mammals as dispersers of fleshy-fruited woody plants in woodland pastures of the Cantabrian range (N Spain). By searching for seeds in mammal scats across four localities, we addressed how extensive seed dispersal was in relation to the fleshy-fruited plant community, and applied a network approach to identify the relative role of mammal species in the seed dispersal process. We also tested the response of mammalian dispersers to forest availability at increasing spatial scales. Five carnivores and three ungulates dispersed seeds of eight fleshy-fruited trees and shrubs. Mammalian seed dispersal did not mirror community-wide fruit availability, as abundant fruiting trees were scarce whereas thorny shrubs were over-represented among dispersed species. The dispersal network was dominated by bramble (Rubus ulmifolius/fruticosus), the remaining plants being rarer and showing more restricted disperser coteries. Fox (Vulpes vulpes), badger (Meles meles), and wild boar (Sus scrofa) dispersed mostly bramble, whereas martens (Martes sp.) dispersed mostly wild rose (Rosa sp.). Ungulates occasionally dispersed holly (Ilex aquifolium) and hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna). The empirical network reflected a skewed distribution of interactions and some functional complementarity (as judged from the low levels of connectance and nestedness), but also some degree of specialization. Mammals overused uncovered microsites for seed deposition, and increased their disperser activity in those landscape sectors devoid of forest. Combined with previous findings on avian seed dispersal, this study suggest a strong functional complementarity coming from the low overlap in the main plant types that mammals and birds disperse – thorny shrubs and trees, respectively – and the differential patterns of seed deposition, with mammals mostly dispersing into deforested areas, and birds into forest-rich landscapes.

Characterising invasive non-native Rhododendron ponticum spectra signatures with spectroradiometry in the laboratory and field: Potential for remote mapping

Compared with traditional ground surveys, remote sensing has the potential to map the spatial extent of non-native invasive species rapidly and reliably. This paper assesses the potential of spectroradiometry to distinguish and characterise the status of invasive non-native rhododendron (Rhododendron ponticum). Absolute reflectance of target plant material was measured with an ASD Fieldspec Pro System under standardised laboratory conditions and in the field to characterise spectral signatures in the winter, during leaf-off conditions for woodland overstory, and in the summer when mature rhododendrons are flowering. A logistic regression model of absolute reflectance at key wavelengths (490, 550, 610, 1040 and 1490nm) was used to determine the success of discriminating rhododendron from three other shrubby species likely to be encountered in woodlands during the winter. The logistic regression model was highly significant (p<0.001), with 93.5% of 246 leaf sets correctly identified as rhododendron or non-rhododendron (i.e. cherry laurel (Prunus laurocerasus), holly (Ilex aquifolium), and beech (Fagus sylvatica)). Rescaling the data to emulate the spectral resolution of airborne and satellite acquired data decreased the total success rate of correctly identifying rhododendron by only 0.4%; although this error rate will likely increase for airborne or satellite data as a result of atmospheric attenuation and reduced spatial resolution. This demonstrates the potential to map bush presence using hyperspectral data and indicates the optimum spectral wavelengths required. Such information is critical to the development of successful strategic management plans to eradicate rhododendron (and the associated Phytophthora ramorum pathogen) effectively from a site.

Spatial patterns of seedling-adult associations in a temperate forest community

The spatial patterns of seedling recruitment were examined in a temperate deciduous forest stand of NW Spain. The emergence and survival of individual seedlings were sampled during two recruitment seasons for the five dominant tree species (Corylus avellana, Crataegus monogyna, Fagus sylvatica, Ilex aquifolium and Taxus baccata). Point pattern analyses based on the mark correlation functions and the independent marking null model were used to explore the relationship between seedling density and the location of individual adults of the same and of different species. Overall, we found that negative or null patterns of association dominated at intermediate to large scales in our study site. Surprisingly, there were almost no positive associations at small scales, except for some pairs of fleshy-fruited species. At the same time, the massive recruitment of F. sylvatica following a mast event was accompanied by positive associations at larger scales. Spatial changes in seedling abundance were demonstrated to depend not only on the distribution of conspecific adult trees, but to lay a spatial signature of the location of adults from other species. The temporal persistence of some of these patterns and changes associated to varying production highlight the need for a community approach to study tree recruitment.

Where do seeds go when they go far? Distance and directionality of avian seed dispersal in heterogeneous landscapes

Seed dispersal at large scales strongly influences plant population dynamics. Still, ecologists have rarely measured seed dispersal at relevant scales, and the role of habitat types in affecting seed dispersal at long distances remains unexplored. We studied seed dispersal of Ilex aquifolium and Crataegus monogyna in northern Spain, hypothesizing that seeds would be recovered at higher rates and at longer distances (LDD) at habitats with fleshy-fruited trees, compared to habitats with other tree types or at open habitats. We tracked seeds in eight landscapes by enriching trees with 15N isotopes at the center of landscapes, and then detected 15N-marked seeds by sampling at distances of up to 700 m. We found that seeds arrive in greater densities and at longer distances in habitats with trees, particularly fleshy-fruited types, producing different LDD probabilities for each habitat. Results also show a disproportional arrival of seeds in habitats similar to those of mother plants, which should affect seed establishment and the genetic diversity of plant neighborhoods. Findings reveal the strong dependence of seed dispersal on the existing templates that guide the movements of avian dispersers in heterogeneous landscapes and also suggest that LDD above tree lines and beyond hard habitat edges can be difficult.

Epigenetic correlates of plant phenotypic plasticity: DNA methylation differs between prickly and nonprickly leaves in heterophyllousIlex aquifolium(Aquifoliaceae) trees

Phenotypic plasticity is central to the persistence of populations and a key element in the evolution of species and ecological interactions, but its mechanistic basis is poorly understood. This article examines the hypothesis that epigenetic variation caused by changes in DNA methylation are related to phenotypic plasticity in a heterophyllous tree producing two contrasting leaf types. The relationship between mammalian browsing and the production of prickly leaves was studied in a population of Ilex aquifolium (Aquifoliaceae). DNA methylation profiles of contiguous prickly and nonprickly leaves on heterophyllous branchlets were compared using a methylation-sensitive amplified polymorphism (MSAP) method. Browsing and the production of prickly leaves were correlated across trees. Within heterophyllous branchlets, pairs of contiguous prickly and nonprickly leaves differed in genome-wide DNA methylation. The mean per-marker probability of methylation declined significantly from nonprickly to prickly leaves. Methylation differences between leaf types did not occur randomly across the genome, but affected predominantly certain specific markers. The results of this study, although correlative in nature, support the emerging three-way link between herbivory, phenotypic plasticity and epigenetic changes in plants, and also contribute to the crystallization of the consensus that epigenetic variation can complement genetic variation as a source of phenotypic variation in natural plant populations. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London

Tracing the introduction history of a potentially invasive ornamental shrub: variation in frost hardiness and climate change

Nursery catalogues have recently been used as a method for tracing the introduction history of invasive plants. Information on species, cultivars, plant size and price can help quantify historical changes in propagule pressure. Propagule pressure of invasive ornamentals has to be combined with climatic data to understand shifting distribution patterns of (potentially) invasive plants. In this study the spread of Ilex aquifolium L. cultivars was investigated at the edge of its distribution margin in Denmark. Danish nursery catalogues from 1841–2007 were studied to 1) reconstruct the introduction history of potentially invasive ornamental genotypes of I. aquifolium in Denmark; 2) explore potential factors that could explain naturalization of the species, i.e. nursery location, plant size, hardiness, price and year; 3) investigate whether or not marketing has been more common inside the historical range of the species in western Denmark; and 4) test the hypothesis that marketing of this frost‐sensitive species has increased parallel with higher temperatures in the past 100 years. Price, plant size, hardiness, location, and year were recorded for a total of 3213 entries. Through time, increasing prices and the availability of frost‐hardy cultivars were the most significant factors contributing to the sale of I. aquifolium in Denmark. The number of nurseries per area, and hence propagule pressure, was higher in eastern Denmark, outside the natural range of the species. The proportion of very frost‐hardy cultivars increased with milder winter temperatures. The main conclusion from this combined nursery catalogue and climate study are that nurseries in an indirect way play an important role in increasing the propagule pressure of potentially invasive ornamentals and thus can affect distribution of native species.

EVSItalia Database of Broadleaved Temperate Deciduous Forests

A database of phytosociological releves of Broadleaved Temperate Deciduous Forests of peninsular Italy (Apennines, from Liguria to Calabria regional districts) is presented (EVSItalia Database of Broadleaved Temperate Deciduous Forests, GIVD ID EUIT-011). The data-set aims to store information from published certified phytosociological sources, in order to support ongoing reviews based on larger data-sets for comparative classification of Italian vegetation types. The database stores 1,092 releves, mostly from beech forests, along an altitudinal gradient. Three beech forest types are identified: between 800 and 1,000/1,100 m.a.s.l., a mixed forest with the presence of Q. cerris, Ilex aquifolium, Tilia sp. and Taxus baccata; above 1,100 m a.s.l. until the treeline, a beechdominated forest; below 800 m a.s.l., relic Fagus forests, in very restricted areas of the Apennines. All the releves are uploaded to the TURBOVEG software for plot databases. An ArcGis Database related to the TURBOVEG units reports localization information in GPS coordinates, toponym or quadrats (grid of Operational Geographic Units -OGU of the Italian floristic grid). Descriptive records of locations extracted from geographical information systems are also stored. The data model structure allows producing presenceabsence or quantitative matrices for classification of communities and their parametrisation over larger areas by geostatistical analysis. The aims are to explore patterns of similarity among the distribution of different associations (chorological groups of associations, provincialism), patterns of geographic changes in community distribution along topographical gradients and to test changes in the physical scenario of selected individual communities along geographical gradients. A different insight into the patterns of synonymy and reassessment among syntaxa on the basis of a geographical treatise is expected as well.