Engine Size Research Articles

Assessment of cost as a function of abatement options in maritime emission control areas

This paper assesses cost as a function of abatement options in maritime emission control areas (ECA). The first regulation of air pollutions from ships which came into effect in the late 1990s was not strict and could easily be met. However the present requirement (2015) for reduction of Sulfur content for all vessels, in combination with the required reduction of nitrogen and carbon emissions for new-built vessels, is an economic and technical challenge for the shipping industry. Additional complexity is added by the fact that the strictest nitrogen regulations are applicable only for new-built vessels from 2016 onwards which shall enter US or Canadian waters. This study indicates that there is no single answer to what is the best abatement option, but rather that the best option will be a function of engine size, annual fuel consumption in the ECA and the foreseen future fuel prices. However a low oil price, favors the options with the lowest capex, i.e. Marine Gas Oil (MGO) or Light Fuel Oil (LFO), while a high oil price makes the solutions which requires higher capex (investments) more attractive.

Dynamic Performance Improvement and Peak Power Limiting Using Ultracapacitor Storage System for Hydraulic Mining Shovels

This paper presents a concept to improve the dynamic response, efficiency, productivity, and fuel consumption of hydraulic mining shovels (HMSs) using a high power energy storage system to supplement the existing diesel-powered generators. A 2.25-MW ultracapacitor system is applied to improve the sluggish dynamic response of the diesel engine during sudden load changes and to limit the engine power requirements by maintaining an optimal engine speed. When the load rate of change increases above a specified rate limit, the ultracapacitor system supplements power to support loads in order to limit the power ramp rate for the generator. In addition to the engine dynamic improvement, the ultracapacitor system supports the engine during peak power demand, allowing for a smaller engine size for the machine, which results in higher fuel savings and less exhaust emissions. An interleaved bidirectional dc/dc converter is designed to interface between the ultracapacitor bank and main dc bus. Sophisticated multilayer control strategies are designed, implemented, and applied to the system to perform complete machine power management while keeping the dc bus voltage stable. Modeling and experimental results for an 8000-hp HMS with the novel electrification architecture have also been presented.

Can UK passenger vehicles be designed to meet 2020 emissions targets? A novel methodology to forecast fuel consumption with uncertainty analysis

Vehicle manufacturers are required to reduce their European sales-weighted emissions to 95g CO2/km by 2020, with the aim of reducing on-road fleet fuel consumption. Nevertheless, current fuel consumption models are not suited for the European market and are unable to account for uncertainties when used to forecast passenger vehicle energy-use. Therefore, a new methodology is detailed herein to quantify new car fleet fuel consumption based on vehicle design metrics. The New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) is shown to underestimate on-road fuel consumption in Spark (SI) and Compression Ignition (CI) vehicles by an average of 16% and 13%, respectively. A Bayesian fuel consumption model attributes these discrepancies to differences in rolling, frictional and aerodynamic resistances. Using projected inputs for engine size, vehicle mass, and compression ratio, the likely average 2020 on-road fuel consumption was estimated to be 7.6L/100km for SI and 6.4L/100km for CI vehicles. These compared to NEDC based estimates of 5.34L/100km (SI) and 4.28L/100km (CI), both of which exceeded mandatory 2020 fuel equivalent emissions standards by 30.2% and 18.9%, respectively. The results highlight the need for more stringent technological developments for manufacturers to ensure adherence to targets, and the requirements for more accurate measurement techniques that account for discrepancies between standardised and on-road fuel consumption.

Pengembangan Mesin Pencacah Sampah/Limbah Plastik Dengan Sistem Crusher dan Silinder Pemotong Tipe Reel

Waste plastic mounting, but can be recycled into other products in the form of granules before further processed into pellets and seed injection molding process produces products such as buckets, plates, bottles and other beverages. To be processed into the required form of granules of plastic thrasher. Though so small plastic recycling industry is still constrained in plastic enumeration process because the machine used was not optimal ability. The purpose of this research is the development of the system thrasher plastic crusher and cutter cylinder-type reel and technical evaluation. This study was conducted over two years, the first year the design and manufacture of machinery, the second year is a technical evaluation of the engine, engine performance improvements and economic analysis of granular plastic products.From the results obtained engine design capacity of the machine ± 350 kg / h, the engine size is 50 cm x 120 cm x 30 cm, power motor of 10 HP at 1450 RPM rotation with 3 phase. Some of the major components of the engine that is, counter crusher unit consists of two counter rotating cylinders opposite, counter shaft size Ø 4 cm x 58 cm, blade chopper Ø 17 cm x 2 cm with the number of teeth / blades 7 pieces and the number of blades along shaft 7 pieces, buses retaining Ø 10 cm x 2 cm. Counter-cylinder unit consists of a reel-type cutter counter shaft size Ø 4 cm x 90 cm, the middle shaft mounted cylinder with Ø 17 cm x 40 cm as the holder of the chopper blades. Chopper blade consists of 4 pieces with a size of 40 cm x 2 cm x 4 cm with ASSAB materials. Furthermore, as the blade retaining bedknife shear force of the blade chopper, upper frame, lower frame, strainer, funnel entry, exit funnel, and the drive unit consists of an electric motor, reducer, belts, pulleys and 2 pieces of gear transmission. The results of performance testing machine crusher round cylinder 75 RPM and 1450 RPM reel-type cutting machine capacity ± 300 kg / h on the filter hole Ø 1.5 cm, with a 80% grain uniformity.

Chemical and Radiative Size—Related Effects on the Performance of Liquid Rocket Engines fed with Different Propellant Combinations

The effects of rocket engine size on the effective exhaust velocity, for geometrically similar nozzles, are investigated as far as finite-rate chemistry and (gas-phase) radiation are concerned. Propulsion systems burning LOX/LH and LOX/LCH4 combinations are considered. The engine performance is estimated via a CFD code based on a particularly convenient formulation. It is found that finite-rate chemistry alone leads to performance steadily increasing with engine size, whereas introducing the effects of radiation reveals the occurrence of a maximum of effective exhaust velocity as a function of nozzle throat diameter. The exact quantification of radiation effects depends anyway to some extent on the modelling assumptions, as well as on the engine operating cycle.

Electric Drill Drive with Intermediate Rolling Members Reducer

The article considers briefly the hand power tool market in Russia. The authors set the parameters of a wave gear electric drill with intermediate rolling solids. Its field of application is also described. The design is developed on the basis of a commutator motor with a useful capacity 1,0 kW. The rotation speed ​​of the motor armature is 15000 rpm. The rational rotation frequency of an auger working body is 200...300rpm. It is necessary to create a gear with a ratio 59 and with parameters comparable to the size of a hand-held machine engine in order to have esthetics. In this case, the diameter of rolling elements should lie in the range 2 to 3 mm. The authors made a research on hand-held electric drill runnability with such characteristics. They presented dependency diagrams of an auger working body critical rotation frequency from a lead angle while drilling different types of soil. They determined important power and geometrical criteria to design a gearbox. The calculation results are presented in tables.

Application of a multi-zone combustion model to investigate the NOx reduction potential of two-stroke marine diesel engines using EGR

The most promising solution for propulsion of marine vessels currently and for the near future is the two-stroke low-speed diesel engines. Despite its advantages, as far as specific fuel oil consumption, power density and reliability is concerned, it suffers from increased NOx emissions mainly because of its low rotational speed. But the upcoming NOx emission legislation (Tier III) in the marine sector requires considerable reduction of NOx emissions towards levels which have not yet been commercially achieved using primary methods. This creates new challenges for the development and application of innovative techniques that could reduce engine’s NOx emissions with the lowest possible fuel penalty. This is important considering current and future fuel prices. The large size of the 2-stroke marine engine makes the use of experimental techniques, to investigate this potential, expensive and time consuming. Modelling can significantly contribute towards this effort and result to reduction of research and development cost. Among the most effective in-cylinder techniques for NOx reduction is EGR, a proven technology for smaller engines used in the transport sector. In the present study, it is investigated via modelling, the potential to reduce NOx emissions of two-stroke marine engines using EGR. Despite the technological difficulties resulting mainly from the use of Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO), which makes the application of conventional EGR techniques difficult, it is worthwhile investigating the NOx reduction potential, since significant progress has been achieved towards the development of new EGR gas cooling techniques and scrubber technologies for removal of sulphur species from the exhaust gas. The present investigation makes use of an existing well validated multi-zone combustion model, initially developed for high-speed DI diesel engines. The model has been successfully applied in the past, to investigate heavy duty diesel engine NOx reduction via EGR, providing favourable results. Currently it is modified and applied on a two-stroke marine diesel engine using EGR. Model evaluation is based on experimental data acquired from the international literature, due to lack of experimental data for 2-stroke engines. The analysis of derived results reveals model’s ability to predict both engine performance and NOx emissions but most important the ability to predict the overall effect of EGR on NOx emissions in a qualitatively correct way. The results also reveal the strong potential of EGR to control NOx emissions of 2-stroke engines with relatively low fuel penalty compared to alternative techniques.

A size effect law for notched tensile strength of woven carbon/epoxy laminates

Specimen-size effect and notch-size effect on the tensile strength of woven fabric carbon/epoxy laminates are evaluated and modeled. For two different layups of [(0/90)12] and [(±45)2/(0/90)5]S, respectively, static tension tests were performed on two-dimensional geometrically similar unnotched and double-edge notched specimens scaled to three different sizes. Experimental results demonstrate that the notched strength of the woven CFRP laminates depend on the size of specimen as well as the size of notch. The ratio of notched strength to unnotched strength decreases as the length of notch increases, regardless of the size of specimen. For a given size of notch, the notch strength ratio becomes larger with decreasing size of specimen. A notch-size effect law is derived by means of the Neuber interpolation method. A specimen-size effect is embedded into the notch sensitivity parameter involved by the notch-size effect law to establish a size effect law that can cope with these two kinds of size effect. The engineering size effect law proposed can adequately describe the specimen-size effect as well as notch-size effect on the tensile strength of the woven CFRP laminates. It is also demonstrated that the size effect law allows determining the size independent fracture toughness on the basis of notched strengths of small specimens that fail in a quasi-brittle manner.

Emissions of Light-Duty Vehicles with Respect to Cruising Speed under Real-World Driving Conditions

AbstractMobile-source emission inventories in countries such as Mexico still require empirical data to complement modeling tools because these tools are based on few local observations. In this study, emission factors (EFs) were determined for 10 light-duty gasoline-powered vehicles as a function of cruising speed under real-world driving conditions typical of the Monterrey metropolitan area, the third largest urban center in Mexico. Greater variability in the EF was found when the vehicles were operated at lower speeds, specifically at 10 km/h; however, above 40 km/h, the changes were marginal. Engine size was the factor that most influenced the emissions of CO2, which were significantly greater in vehicles with an engine size above 2 L. A reduction trend in the CO-to-NOx ratio of newer model vehicles was observed. Upon comparison of the experimental results with the results obtained from the MOBILE6.2-Mexico and the MOVES 2010a models, it was determined that the latter model better described the value...

Assessment of a CHP system based on economical, fuel consumption and environmental considerations

Combined heat and power (CHP) systems which are able to produce heating and power simultaneously, are getting more attention since they have many economical and environmental benefits. CHP systems for buildings are an important application of CHP on various systems designs. In this study, we have investigated a CHP system applicable for the building of Azad University of Shahrood. The prime mover utilised here is an internal combustion engine (ICE) with natural gas fuel, and the CHP system is evaluated under different sizes of engine, between 200 kW to 1,800 kW. Based on the cost analysis, fuel consumption and emission deducting, an evaluation factor indicator (EFI) is defined which can be applied to select an ideal engine for the proposed CHP system. The lower the EFI, the better option for the engine sizes can be achieved. The result shows that a gas engine with the size of 1,200 kW has the lowest EFI factor. Regarding this size of engine, a CHP system is designed and it found that the CHP system is economically viable for the operation period, and the return on investment will be higher than the interest rate.

A06 熱音響エンジン発電機の開発(スターリングエンジン・熱音響エンジン)

We have developed a thermoacoustic electric generator consisting of a looped tube thermoacoustic engine and a voice coil type generator in place of an acoustic resonator. On the basis of measurements of the acoustic impedances of the looped tube engine and the generator, we modified the electric generator to make their acoustic impedances to become the same as each other. The thermoacoustic electric generator thus constructed oscillates at the frequency much lower than that expected from the engine size.

A STUDY OF COMBINING GASOLINE ENGINE DOWNSIZING AND CONTROLLED AUTO-IGNITION COMBUSTION

In recent years European automotive CO 2 emissions targets have largely been met through increased diesel sales. However, the distillation of crude oil results in high proportions of both gasoline and diesel fuel and ultimately this has resulted in Europe being “diesel lean” at times. In order to meet future global emissions goals, in the short term it will be necessary to improve the fuel consumption of the gasoline engine and in the longer term source sustainable alternatives to crude oil. The objective of the current work was to investigate the optimum trade-off between the opposing engine operating requirements of gasoline engine downsizing and Controlled Auto-Ignition (CAI) combustion for use in a family-sized passenger car. Experimental fuel consumption and emissions data were produced for four sizes of spark ignition engine, varying from 1 to 2 litres in capacity. The additional benefits of two experimentally developed CAI operating methodologies were evaluated in each engine using drive cycle simulation software. The first CAI mode was based on novel use of combined internal and external EGR to attain higher loads. The second involved the adoption of turbocharging at part-load for yet higher output via so-called lean-boosted CAI. It was concluded that, for such a vehicle, a compromise exists where best fuel economy can be obtained from a moderately downsized CAI-capable engine. Compared to the baseline 2 litre engine, it was possible to obtain fuel economy benefit equivalent to that offered from an aggressively downsized 1 litre unit but using a moderately downsized 1.4 litre CAI engine, without the need for any complex boosted operation or expensive emissions aftertreatment systems. As capacity was reduced below 1.4 litres, the benefit of CAI diminished at an accelerated rate due to progressive failure to capture key higher load sites visited across the European drive cycle.

THE PROBLEM OF NOT DRIVEN PROPELLERS IN MULTI-SCREW SHIPS PROPULSION ARRANGEMENTS

Power requirement for ship’s movement depends on their size (water displacement) and sailing speed. The problem is especially important for fast ships, because the speed of movement is generating significant high power requirement, while limited displacement, diminishing a drag quantity from one hand, is a reason of limited draft and consequently limited capacity of a hull from the other. Above facts have strong influence at a number, type, power and size of main engines and propellers. Fast ships are designed for reaching maximum speed, but majority of exploitation time, are cruising at lower speed, called partial speed. That exploitation profile requires stopping of some engines or braking of propellers. Not driven propellers are dragged behind the hull, and work at a turbine mode, giving a torque at a propulsion shaft and creates a negative thrust what means the additional drag. The additional drag of not driven propellers must be calculated during the propulsion design stage, and analysis of speed value during different variants of the ship’s movement . Torque values and thrusts can be evaluated basing on the universal hydrodynamic characteristics of propellers. the method and example of calculation of the drag created by free-rotating and stopped propellers of the exemplary propulsion set are presented in the paper.

Powertrain sizing of electrically supercharged internal combustion engine vehicles

We assess the concept of electrically supercharged internal combustion engines, where the supercharger, consisting of a compressor and an electric motor, draws electric power from a buffer (a battery or a supercapacitor). In particular, we investigate the scenario of downsizing the engine, while delivering high power demands by supercharging. Simultaneously, we seek the optimum buffer size that provides sufficient electric power and energy to run the supercharger, such that the vehicle is able to deliver the performance required by a driving cycle representing the typical daily usage of the vehicle. We provide convex modeling steps that formulate the problem as a second order cone program that not only delivers the optimal engine and buffer size, but also provides the optimal control and state trajectories for a given gear selection strategy. Finally, we provide a case study of sizing the engine and the electric buffer for different compressor power ratings.

Reducing the Development Life Cycle of Automotive Valves and Seat Valves Using a New Workbench for High Temperature Wear Testing

The trend in the automotive industry is to reduce the size of engines while increasing power. The concept of leveraging considers not only the efficiency of manufacturing a product but all consumption of energy or other natural resources during the life cycle of the product. In this process, one of the bottlenecks to more efficient engines is the exhaust valve. The valve and valve seat together perform the function of ensuring the entry of air and combustible material, the output of combustion gases and the sealing function during the compression and combustion processes. The valve is the most demanding component in high efficiency engines. To ensure the rigor of operation while providing clean burning and low emissions, the application of special materials is necessary. The extremely high temperatures of the exhaust gases, the velocities of valves and the high operating pressure are only some of the parameters that cause wear on valves. The materials used in valve production must be characterized by good workability, low wear, good mechanical strength and good fatigue and corrosion resistance at high temperatures. In this context, the CCM/ITA and SENAI CIMATEC jointly developed a workbench to simulate the durability of valves and valve seats, analyze their wear resistance and evaluate their behavior with varying parameters. This paper shows the workbench development process and a new testing method that considers the high engine operation temperatures and focuses on reducing the new material development life cycle and the emissions during the product usage life time.

Hydrogen Engine and Numerical Temperature-Entropy Chart for Hydrogen/Air Cycle Analysis

Fast depletion of fossil fuels with its resources already passed its mid depletion region and the pollution levels already reached unsafe levels which make it utmost necessity to search for alternative fuels to meet sustainable energy demand with minimum environmental impact. Among alternative fuels, hydrogen is considered as the near future, long term renewable, sustainable and non-polluting fuel. In the present paper, hydrogen fueled internal combustion engine fundamentals highlighted and presented relating to hydrogen combustion properties. A Mat lab programmed hydrogen temperature-entropy-energy chart is developed and presented for fresh charge and products of combustion at different excess air factors per mole combustion gases. The chart, then, used to represent a SI hydrogen-fueled fuel/air cycle analysis, which proved to be valuable design tool for engine sizing and for prediction of engine performance. Predictions carried out using the hydrogen F/A cycle analysis at different λ show low brake specific fuel consumption and low volume specific power compared with conventional SI engine.

Roles of driver and vehicle characteristics in speed choice along rural highways

A total of 2510 vehicle speed observations were measured from a straight section of a rural two-lane two way highway in Jordan. The mean speeds were above the maximum allowable speed (acceptable limit for citations) for passenger cars, vehicles with engine sizes of 1800 cc or more, new vehicles (1-10 years), vehicles with 1-3 passengers and drivers wearing seat belts. They were above the speed limit (posted limit on the traffic sign) and below the maximum allowable speed for young adult and adult drivers, male drivers, non-seat belt users, pickups, busses, vans, medium age vehicles (11-15 years), vehicles with four passengers and vehicles with engine sizes of less than 1800 cc. However, they were below the speed limit for older drivers, female drivers, trucks and older vehicles (>15 years). Loaded pickups and trucks had lower speeds than unloaded ones.

A Look at Compressor Impeller Technologies for Turbochargers Focusing on Surge Mitigation

With rising fuel costs and new emissions standards for automobiles, automotive manufacturers are turning to new ways to decrease engine size and emissions while still maintaining high power operation. This can be accomplished through the use of turbochargers. The aim of this study is to analyze what is currently being done with turbocharger compressor technology to meet these requirements. This analysis will focus on different impeller blading designs including splitter bladed impellers, tandem bladed impellers, and tandem bladed impellers with a casing blade. There are different advantages associated with each impeller design. The tandem bladed impeller designs are shown to have decreased efficiency and pressure ratios as compared with the backswept and/or splitter bladed designs. It is also shown that the operating range is increased with the tandem design due to a lower surge margin. Further analysis needs to be conducted on refining the tandem bladed and tandem bladed with a casing blade designs to truly see if these designs have the potential for greater performance improvements. Keywords: Centrifugal compressor impeller; Turbocharging; Turbomachinery; Tandem-blading; Compressor surge; Compressor performance; Impeller designs Introduction With rising fuel costs and the depletion of natural resources, automotive manufacturers have been looking for ways to increase fuel economy without significantly decreasing an engine’s power output. Many engine manufactures have turned to the use of turbochargers to meet this need. A turbocharger is able to increase an engine’s power by forcing more air into the combustion chamber thus also allowing it take in more fuel as well. The mass of air entering the combustion chamber can increase the power output as well as allow for leaner combustion. These are an attractive option for modern cars because they allow manufacturers to use smaller engines for the same output power. This can increase fuel economy at idling stages as well as reduce the overall weight of the vehicle. They also function as a way to reduce emissions since a majority of modern turbochargers are driven by an exhaust gas turbine. The turbine is connected to the compressor via a common shaft so when it pulls in the exhaust gases, it generates the rotation necessary for the compressor to operate. A major component of the turbocharger is the compressor which is generally a centrifugal compressor. Flow generally enters the compressor in axial direction. The rotating impeller blades then accelerate the fluid before discharging it radially. This increase in velocity will generally lead to an increase in pressure as well. The accelerated fluid can then be discharged into a collector and then on to a diffuser where the fluid velocity is decreased allowing further conversion of velocity into pressure. Generally, a centrifugal compressor is designed for optimal operation at a single speed. This can be problematic as compressors need to be able to function at off-design speeds, especially in the case of automotive turbochargers which have highly transient operation. Due to the transient nature of engine operation, a turbocharger ideally has a large operating range. Bounding the operating range at low speeds with high pressure ratios is the surge limit. Surge occurs when there is a low flow rate at a relatively high pressure ratio causing flow reversal. This causes fluctuations in the flow resulting in unstable operation. Surge that results in a flow reversal over almost the entire fluid flow, also known

Larger ATV engine size correlates with an increased rate of traumatic brain injury

IntroductionSince the introduction of all-terrain vehicles (ATV) to the United States in 1971, injuries and mortalities related to their use have increased significantly. Furthermore, these vehicles have become larger and more powerful. As there are no helmet requirements or limitations on engine-size in the State of Alabama, we hypothesised that larger engine size would correlate with an increased incidence of traumatic brain injury (TBI) in patients following an ATV crash. MethodsPatient and ATV data were prospectively collected on all ATV crashes presenting to a level one trauma centre from September 2010 to May 2013. Collected data included: demographics, age of driver, ATV engine size, presence of helmet, injuries, and outcomes. The data were grouped according to the ATV engine size in cubic centimetres (cc). For the purposes of this study, TBI was defined as any type of intracranial haemorrhage on the initial computed tomography scan. ResultsThere were 61 patients identified during the study period. Two patients (3%) were wearing a helmet at the time of injury. Patients on an ATV with an engine size of 350cc or greater had higher Injury Severity Scores (13.9 vs. 7.5, p≤0.05) and an increased incidence of TBI (26% vs. 0%, p≤0.05) when compared to patients on ATV's with an engine size less than 350cc. ConclusionsPatients on an ATV with an engine size of 350cc or greater were more likely to have a TBI. The use of a helmet was rarely present in this cohort. Legislative efforts to implement rider protection laws for ATVs are warranted.

Benchmarking vehicle and passenger travel characteristics in Delhi for on-road emissions analysis

In a mega-city like Delhi, vehicle exhaust emissions play a central role for urban air quality management, and measuring these on-road emissions in an environment with mixed fuels, mixed engine sizes, mixed technologies, and mixed usage patterns, is a challenging task, which means a better understanding of the vehicle and the passenger characteristics in the city is necessary. In this paper, we present a series of survey methods – vehicle owners’ interviews at fuel stations, on-road observational studies, and use of data resources like vehicle registrations and pollution under check program, which can be utilized to benchmark parameters linked to an emissions inventory methodology (Activity–Share–Intensity–Factor – ASIF). We present estimates for fuel efficiency, age profiles, annual mileage, and number of in-use vehicles for cars, motorized two-wheelers (2Ws), three-wheeled scooter rickshaws (3Ws), and buses and modeled survival functions for cars and 2Ws using log-logistic distribution function. In addition, using GPS data logging, we evaluated speed distribution of buses, cars, 2Ws and 3Ws, which resulted in evaluating the modal idling times, all of which were utilized to develop a robust vehicle exhaust emissions inventory for Delhi – segregated by vehicle type, fuel type, and age group. The survey methods and analytical techniques are simple and fast to implement, which when replicated, can provide a useful data source to estimate on-road transport emissions in urban areas.