Energy Security Strategy Research Articles

Techno-economic and life cycle assessments of the natural gas supply chain from production sites in Canada to north and southwest Europe

In recent years, the need for energy security strategies through liquefied natural gas (LNG) import has occupied an unprecedented spot in the European Union's foreign policy agenda. The availability of abundant natural gas resources in Western Canada, making this region a potential supplier, has, therefore, received significant attention. In order to ensure a competitive spot in the global natural gas market, it is important for Canada to supply its natural gas both at a competitive price and with lower emissions. In this study, a comparative assessment of the delivered costs and life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of the natural gas supply chain from production sites in Canada to north and southwest Europe is conducted through the development of techno-economic and life cycle analyses models. Two possible supply chain routes to Europe were explored, one from the west coast and the other via the east coast of Canada, and included recovery, processing, transmission, liquefaction, shipping, and re-gasification. Two sources of Canadian natural gas reserves, Montney and Horn River, are investigated. The results show that the delivered cost ($/GJ) of Canadian LNG (including recovery, processing, transmission, liquefaction, and shipping cost) to Europe is 8.9–12.9, depending on the resources and pathway. The total well-to-port (WTP) GHG emissions (including emissions from recovery, processing, transportation, liquefaction, shipping and re-gasification at the destination port) from the Canadian production sites to Europe is 22.9–42.1 g-CO2eq/MJ, depending on the resources and pathway followed. The costs and GHG emissions values reported in the literature for the delivery of natural gas from the major exporting countries were lower than those for the Canadian LNG supply chain. Finding other sources of natural gas in Eastern Canada might provide a cheaper and less GHG-intensive alternative to the Canadian LNG supply chain.

Особенности формирования стратегии прямых иностранных инвестиций Японии в XXI веке

The aim of this article is to highlight the main changes in the Japanese FDI strategy in 2000– 2016. The beginning of the 21st century appeared to be a period when the Japanese foreign economic policy was changed and adapted to new conditions of international market in the context of globalization and growing level of international competition. Japanese companies started to enter and develop in the new markets while ensuring their economic involvement in traditional partner nations. In the beginning of 2000s, the Japanese outward FDI grew signifcantly, especially in the South-East and East Asia. Despite the drastic decline in the Japanese FDI after the fnancial crisis of 2008, it started to increase again in 2010 reaching the previous levels. The Fukushima-1 accident forced Japanese government to revise its energy security strategy and initiated diversifcation of energy suppliers. Among the main recipients of Japanese investment there are the USA, China and ASEAN nations. The recent new foreign economic strategy that is supposed to take the country out of stagnation has resulted in diversifcation of its FDI flow to non-traditional developing markets such as Latin America countries, India, ASEAN including Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, CIS countries, and Russia. Russia is a strategic supplier of energy resources for Japan and an important consumer market as well. In addition to the energy sector, the investments are growing into the Russian fnancial sectors, retail markets, vehicle manufacturing and pharmaceutical industry. The Russian Far East is the most attractive Russian region due to its territorial proximity and diverse natural and bio resources. Moreover, for Japanese investors Russia may be seen as a growing market with high level of consumption. However, current international political situation and sanctions have slowed down bilateral collaboration and had a negative effect on the Japanese investment activity in the Russian market. Despite that both sides show high interest in strengthening their economic and political relations.

A coordinated energy security model taking strategic petroleum reserve and alternative fuels into consideration

Strategic petroleum reserve (SPR) and alternative fuels are both important for energy security. In this paper, a quantitative energy security model is proposed to calculate the optimized scales of SPR and alternative fuels (e.g., coal-converted methanol). The coordinated model mainly focuses on cost-benefit analysis, including the economic costs of SPR and alternative fuels, and the benefits for ensuring energy security. Demonstrating examples in China have been analyzed, and it shows that SPR and alternative fuels have coordinated effects in ensuring energy security, while alternative fuel is a supplementary method for reducing the negative effects of the raise of oil price and related economic losses. By the end of 2030, the net present value (NPV) will be considerably large with 150–200 million tons of SPR and 50–100 million tons of alternative fuels in China. Quantitative sensitivity analysis have been introduced for optimum scales and net present value (NPV) of SPR and alternative fuels, demonstrating that GDP/oil price elastic coefficient, domestic production of oil and investment of alternative fuels are key parameters for energy security. This model provides a quantitative method for the evaluations of the national energy security strategy.

Energy Security in Europe Political Issues for a Strategic Matter

Every member state of the European Union has its own energy security strategy and its own way of dealing with international partners in the energy field, depending on the national gas and oil necessities, power generating capacities, geostrategic position in Europe and economic and politic influences. Insufficient energy resources led some of the European states with powerful economies to accepting in their bilateral relations conditions, positions and decisions that otherwise would have been unacceptable. On the other hand, countries like Romania, Ukraine, Turkey and the countries of the Baltic Area, give more credit to the national security issues, in spite of being partially or even totally energy dependent on the resources provided by the Russian Federation. Those countries are much more uncompromising in front of the Russians intentions to use energy as an important instrument for blackmailing Europe and imposing a certain political, economic and strategic influence at the global level. The article shows how the globalized economy with its multinational companies influence European strategic development, the main features of the the European Commission strategic projection for energy security on the continent, the Russian Federation strategy for weakening Europe and the alternative solutions for e better European energy security.

EU Energy Security and Turkey's Contribution to the Southern Energy Corridor

The European Union should consider Turkey a core actor for implementing the Southern Energy Corridor that will serve Europe's main energy security strategy: diversification of routes and suppliers of energy. At the same time, the EU should pay attention not only to Ankara's sensitive bilateral relations with the countries along the corridor but also with others that can influence the operation of this corridor, mainly Russia. The quality of relations among Turkey, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Greece, Russia, and the EU should be considered of fundamental importance for the implementation of such a project. An analysis of these relations sheds light on policymakers' options.

Establishing an energy security framework for a fast-growing economy: Industry perspectives from Turkey

Energy security is currently one of the priorities in governmental agendas, particularly for fast-growing economies such as Turkey. These economies which typically depend on energy-intense industrial production require a consistent, reliable supply of energy to support their economic development, especially the ones with limited indigenous energy resources. As the Industrial sector plays a major role in energy demand, the successful implementation of energy security strategy also depends on the cooperation of intensive energy consuming industrial companies. Therefore, this paper investigates the interrelationship between Turkish industry’s perspective and government’s energy security strategy papers, providing a case with the potential to enlighten the process. It also aims to gain insight into the industry sector’s view of the energy security in this context, through a qualitative inquiry. An analysis of resulting concepts, and the interaction and interrelation among these enable the development of a Turkish energy security framework based on the views of industrial sector. In addition, a set of policy recommendations are developed following this framework. This study also identifies possible areas of discrepancies between industry and government perceptions, and thus, potentially promoting levels of interaction and understanding between the two key parties.

Life cycle assessment of palm biodiesel production in Thailand: Impacts from modelling choices, co-product utilisation, improvement technologies, and land use change

The palm biodiesel industry has been promoted for climate change mitigation, energy security and sustainability strategies worldwide. International debates on land use change and unintended consequences from market-driven impacts of biofuel (i.e. biodiesel and bioethanol) production have highlighted the need for an assessment which considers multi-modelling approaches as well as up-to-date improvement technologies. This study assessed potential environmental life cycle consequences of palm-based biodiesel production in comparison with conventional diesel production. Impacts from modelling choices (consequential and attributional life cycle assessment), co-product utilisation during the palm oil milling and biodiesel conversion stages, recent improvement technologies for treating palm oil mill effluent and oil palm breeding, and direct and indirect land use change were assessed using fifteen scenarios. It was found that the different modelling choices as well as the inclusion of direct and indirect land use change highly affected environmental gains and losses compared with the conventional diesel system. The most important contributor to the environmental benefits was utilisation of co-products. When excluding the use phase (because its value did not vary across the different scenarios; except for climate change), the most important contributor in environmental impacts for terrestrial acidification and marine eutrophication, was emissions from indirect land use change. Increased oil palm yields and improved palm oil mill effluent treatment technologies resulted in overall impact reduction; and should be promoted. Various co-product utilisation pathways have shown different impact reduction potentials. Co-products from palm oil mills should be fully utilised for electricity production, animal feed and oil substitution. Glycerol from biodiesel conversion was suggested to be used for animal nutrition. In conclusion, both modelling choices should be used for supporting policies in different contexts. Policy makers need to be aware of the differences in outcomes and risks of both modelling choices and later on select the specific approach which fits their specific decision context. Co-product utilisation should be optimised in order to increase the total impact reduction. Recommended co-product utilisation pathways, oil palm variety and wastewater treatment technologies can be used for further enhancing the sustainability of palm oil industry.

Critical assessment of diversification of nuclear fuel for the operating VVER reactors in the EU

The current pressure for the diversification of nuclear fuel for VVER reactors in the EU is traceable to the proposed European Energy Security Strategy of May 2014, and to the recent Euratom call for the licensing of non-Russian fuel for VVER reactors won by a Westinghouse-led group in June 2015. The VVER-440 fuel market is monopolized by Russia's OAO TVEL, and this development indeed is related to the supply security of the EU's VVER-440 fleet. But the evidence shows that only Slovakia's NPPs can effectively diversify the fuel for the VVER-440 fleet, as Slovakia is the only country without long-term contractual obstacles to changing suppliers. The European Commission is thus supporting primarily the diversification activities of the Slovak Republic.

The Modular Petroleum Refinery Alternative as an Energy Security and Environmental Sustainability Strategy in Nigeria: A Technology Policy Assessment

Attaining the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in Nigeria requires significant consumption of energy, especially petroleum products. This petroleum energy requirement has not been determined, thus limiting policy formulation and development in the various sectors of the national economy. This paper examined the petroleum requirement to achieve the MDGs, and the viability of modular petroleum refineries to meet national petroleum product demand. Data on national energy intensity and the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) were obtained from the Ministry of Finance, similarly petroleum consumption data were obtained from the Ministry of Petroleum Resources. The energy forecasting and planning analysis technique as well as strategic assessment methodology was used in the study. A realistic 10% economic growth rate was adopted for the paper and appropriate timeframe of 2014-2020. The results showed that total petroleum energy demand estimates are almost 1.70 billion barrels of oil, costing approximately US$146.2 billion (N 23.39 trillion) at the current price of US$86 per barrel. The estimated petrol and diesel demands over the time frame are 171.71 billion litres and 51.65 billion litres respectively, costing N 16.66 trillion for petrol (at N97 per litre) and N 7.75 trillion for diesel (at N150 per litre). Total petrol and diesel production requirements are 126.67 billion litres and 61.97 billion litres respectively, costing N 12.29 trillion for petrol and N 9.3 trillion for diesel. Nigeria lacks the domestic capacity to refine this petroleum requirement – total petroleum refining capacity is only 445,000 barrels per day and capacity utilisation is less than 23% of installed refining capacity. Thus, the petroleum product demand will have to be met by importation leading to capital flight, employment restrictions and socio-economic development constraints. Total petrol demand by the economy would exceed total refined petrol production by 45.04 billion litres at a cost of N 4.37 trillion. Similarly, total diesel demand would be lower than total refined diesel production by 10.32 billion litres at a cost of N 1.55 trillion. Thirty Modular Refinery Plants (MRPs) each with a capacity of 30,000 bpd would be needed to meet the required petroleum energy demand, and national capability for sustainable petroleum refining was rated to be low (4.3 out of 10). Likewise, the adequacy of domestic engineers and applied scientists to meet the demands of the national petroleum refining industry were rated to be low (3.9 out of 10). The modular petroleum refining alternative could lead to the creation of up to 1.5 million jobs over the time frame of the study and estimated revenues accruable from petroleum products sales are N 5.67 Trillion, leading to an estimated NPV of N 21.52 Trillion and a break-even period of one year. In conclusion, the study determined that the modular petroleum refining alternative was techno-economically viable and could lead to poverty reduction through the substantial creation of job opportunities in the country.

Impact of sustained low oil prices on China's oil & gas industry system and coping strategies

The global sustained low oil prices have a significant impact on China's oil and gas industry system and the national energy security. This paper aims to find solutions in order to guarantee the smooth development of China's oil and gas industry system and its survival in such a severe environment. First, the origins of sustained low oil prices were analyzed. Then, based on those published data from IEA, government and some other authorities, this study focused on the development status, energy policies and the future developing trend of those main oil & gas producing countries. Investigations show that the low-price running is primarily contributed to the so-called oil and gas policies in the USA. It is predicted that national petroleum consumption will reach up to 6.0 × 108 t (oil) & 3300 × 108 m3 (gas) in 2020 and 6.8 × 108 t (oil) & 5200 × 108 m3 (gas) in 2030. For reducing the dependence on foreign oil and gas, the investment in the upstream of oil and gas industry should be maintained and scientific research should be intensified to ensure the smooth operation of the oil and gas production system. Considering China's national energy security strategy, the following suggestions were proposed herein. First, ensure that in China the yearly oil output reaches 2 × 108 t, while natural gas yield will be expected to be up to 2700 × 108 m3 in 2030, both of which should become the “bottom line” in the long term. Second, focus on the planning of upstream business with insistence on risk exploration investment, scientific and technological innovation and pilot area construction especially for low-permeability tight oil & gas, shale oil & gas reservoir development techniques. Third, encourage the in-depth reform and further growth especially in the three major state-owned oil & gas companies under adverse situations, and create more companies competent to offer overseas technical services by taking the opportunity of the “One Belt and One Road” policy. Finally, promote the new energy business and find solutions to turning those oil companies to integrated energy companies.

Energy access and security strategies in Small Island Developing States

Small Islands Developing States (SIDS) are isolated and surrounded by ocean. The generation and use of energy resources are two very important aspects for the development of SIDS. Unfortunately, most of SIDS do not use their potential in respect of energy resources, and they as a result have to depend on the import of fossil fuels in order to meet their energy needs. This increases the overall vulnerability of SIDS as they have to depend on the rising or fluctuating fossil fuels prices. Some SIDS, especially in the geographically dispersed Pacific region, do not have proper access to energy whereas other SIDS struggle more with energy security issue. At the same time, SIDS are most vulnerable to the impacts and effects of climate change, as they are among the ones to be most severely affected in case of natural calamities and sea-level rise.Drawing on experiences from Fiji and Mauritius, this paper explains core elements related to energy access and security in SIDS, contextualizes and discusses barriers and list some of the strategies that may be used to ensure access to and a continuous supply of energy in SIDS. A situational analysis of two SIDS outlines their current energy situation and compares their energy policies to globally accepted criteria for SIDS policies as well as with each other. It is claimed that the diverging energy performances of Fiji and Mauritius cannot be explained by policies differences. The reasons for the varying energy performances may therefore lie in the administrative and institutional mechanisms used by the two countries in implementing their energy policies. Finally, to enable SIDS to reduce their overall vulnerability and become truly sustainable islands, it is recommended to undertake careful assessments of the particular local contexts under which island energy regimes operate.

Analysis of Factors Affecting the String Cross-Through Capability Within Long Horizontal Section in Shale Gas Drilling

Along with the further petroleum exploration and development, the conventional oil and gas resources cannot meet the needs of rapid economic development now. Shale gas energy as an important supplement to the existing traditional energy is one of the main successive energy in the future which has very important significance for our country to realize diversified energy security strategy. In the course of drilling and developing horizontal wells in shale gas reservoirs, when it comes to hole trajectory control technology based on guide screw drill in horizontal well drilling with long horizontal section, there are some problems that string extension ability will be limited through horizontal section and low drilling efficiency will happen in later period which is not good for economic and efficient development of shale gas. This article focused on the researches of limit mechanism of the influence factors such as assembly, drill string buckling, weight on bit, well depth profile, and slope, and finally the extension ability in horizontal section was effectively improved by optimizing the well bore profile design and optimizing drilling parameters.

The water-land-food nexus of first-generation biofuels.

Recent energy security strategies, investment opportunities and energy policies have led to an escalation in biofuel consumption at the expenses of food crops and pastureland. To evaluate the important impacts of biofuels on food security, the food-energy nexus needs to be investigated in the context of its linkages with the overall human appropriation of land and water resources. Here we provide a global assessment of biofuel crop production, reconstruct global patterns of biofuel crop/oil trade and determine the associated displacement of water and land use. We find that bioethanol is mostly produced with domestic crops while 36% of biodiesel consumption relies on international trade, mainly from Southeast Asia. Altogether, biofuels rely on about 2-3% of the global water and land used for agriculture, which could feed about 30% of the malnourished population. We evaluate the food-energy tradeoff and the impact an increased reliance on biofuel would have on the number of people the planet can feed.

Nuevos planteamientos en la seguridad energética de la Unión Europea y opciones en el Mediterráneo occidental

Energy security has climbed the list of the European Union energy and foreign policy strategic priorities in the last decade. Deep transformations in the global energy landscape, triggered by technological advances, major geopolitical challenges and the imperatives of the transition to a low carbon energy system, are leading the EU to rethink its energy security strategy. A process that is driven, however, by the tensions between the declared need for closer cooperation and coordination and the respect of national energy interests of the EU Members states. The objective of this article is to analyze the challenges of the European energy security strategy in a changing global landscape and to discuss the policies and mechanisms in order to improve and strengthen it. The promotion of a better and deeper energy cooperation between the EU and its Mediterranean southern neighbours represents a singular opportunity to achieve newly defined strategic goals for both regions.

Study on the Energy Security Strategy of South Korea

Stability and security of energy resources are one of the most important factors for a national-development. In this research, we analyzed the Republic of Korea's policy making system on energy security and identified the problems from an innovation system perspective. In terms of the actors, they had limitations that ROK's navy do not have enough strategic plan for energy transportation. The links between innovation actors except defense area were relatively good, but links between the military area(navy) and other innovation actors had weak linkage. The infrastructure did't have enough consideration for military force development. For the institution; the role of the military area on energy security was not completely established. Therefore, participation of the defense area(navy) is required to be stated institutionally.

The elephant and the tiger: Energy security, geopolitics, and national strategy in China and India’s cross border gas pipelines

China and India—the two large expanding economies of the world—being not endowed with enough oil and gas, are heavily relying on imports to sustain their growth. The physical proximity of both these countries makes them deal with some of the oil/gas rich countries in their common neighborhood to secure energy through pipelines. This paper outlines consumer countries’ measures towards supplier and transit countries in economic, political, and social dimensions. It compares the approaches of China and India in terms of their investments, bilateral trade, political interference, level of strategic partnerships, and social and cultural linkages with the supplier and transit countries. Contrasting China’s two operational projects—Central Asia–China and Myanmar–China gas pipelines, with India’s two comparable proposals—Turkmenistan–Afghanistan–Pakistan–India and Myanmar–Bangladesh–India gas pipelines, it gives rationale of China’s success and India’s lack of it in materializing these projects. The paper indicates policy gaps for both countries, particularly for India, in speedy realization of stalled projects and smooth functioning of ongoing ones. This study can be instrumental in providing a guideline of the measures a consumer country must undertake as part of its national strategy in supplier and transit countries to achieve energy security and geopolitical advantage.

Will Energy Save FDI Inflows to Turkey from the Cool Down of EU Accession Prospects? A Case Study of How Geo-political Alliances and Regional Networks Matter

Turkey has historically struggled to attract foreign investors. This paper discusses how the start of the European Union's accession negotiations in 2005 encompassed a wide set of reforms in several chapters of the acquis communautaire that resulted in higher foreign direct investment (FDI) attraction. However, it seems that the global economic slowdown of 2009 coupled with increasing Euro-skepticism have already started to erode this effect. Only large a volume of foreign investment in the energy sector observed in 2009–13, explained by the energy security strategy of the European Union and the internal liberalization agenda, has prevented the collapse of FDI inflows to Turkey.

Atmospheric impacts of black carbon emission reductions through the strategic use of biodiesel in California

The use of biodiesel as a replacement for petroleum-based diesel fuel has gained interest as a strategy for greenhouse gas emission reductions, energy security, and economic advantage. Biodiesel adoption may also reduce particulate elemental carbon (EC) emissions from conventional diesel engines that are not equipped with after-treatment devices. This study examines the impact of biodiesel blends on EC emissions from a commercial off-road diesel engine and simulates the potential public health benefits and climate benefits.EC emissions from the commercial off-road engine decreased by 76% when ultra-low sulfur commercial diesel (ULSD) fuel was replaced by biodiesel. Model calculations predict that reduced EC emissions translate directly into reduced EC concentrations in the atmosphere, but the concentration of secondary particulate matter was not directly affected by this fuel change. Redistribution of secondary particulate matter components to particles emitted from other sources did change the size distribution and therefore deposition rates of those components. Modification of meteorological variables such as water content and temperature influenced secondary particulate matter formation.Simulations with a source-oriented WRF/Chem model (SOWC) for a severe air pollution episode in California that adopted 75% biodiesel blended with ULSD in all non-road diesel engines reduced surface EC concentrations by up to 50% but changed nitrate and total PM2.5 mass concentrations by less than ±5%. These changes in concentrations will have public health benefits but did not significantly affect radiative forcing at the top of the atmosphere. The removal of EC due to the adoption of biodiesel produced larger coatings of secondary particulate matter on other atmospheric particles containing residual EC leading to enhanced absorption associated with those particles. The net effect was a minor change in atmospheric optical properties despite a large change in atmospheric EC concentrations. These results emphasize the importance of considering EC mixing state in climate research.

Energy security assessment when introducing renewable energy technologies

Large-scale introduction of energy-saving technologies, especially renewable energy technologies, is closely linked with the problems of energy independence of domestic enterprises. In implementing the latest energy-saving technologies, including advanced technologies of conversion and utilization of renewable energy such as solar energy, heat from venting emissions and etc., forming a kind of the system of enterprise energy security indicators is necessary. Based on certain indicators, enterprise energy security strategy can be evolved in the future taking into account the principles of sustainable development. To select the best embodiment of the energy supply systems using renewable energy, a set of requirements that will provide effective technical support of the production process were defined. The system of interconnected stages, which allows the energy security investigation was identified. The method, which suggests using an indicative method, qualimetric assessment, decoupling etc. to calculate the integral index of the enterprise energy security was proposed. Qualimetric assessment of the enterprise energy security is carried out in the following stages: forming a hierarchical system; expert evaluation of the weight (importance) indicators: combining quantitative and qualitative estimates by certain rules into the overall estimate of the object. In the study of the system of the enterprise energy security indicators, consideration of the effect decoupling, which determines the need to change processes, especially when using renewable energy sources is important. The obtained indicators can be used in the future when forming the enterprise energy security strategy. Reduction of the indicator value indicates the degradation of the enterprise energy security. Using indicators when developing the energy supply strategy, including utilization of renewable energy will promote systemic saving of fossil fuel, reducing the harmful effects of energy systems on the environment and energy supply stabilization.

CHINA’S STRATEGY OF ENERGY SECURITY IN CENTRAL ASIA

U.S.recently launched strategy of rebalancing to Asia worsens the atmosphere forChina’s energy security and increases the risks for energy transportation from Africa and theMiddle East. The diversification of energy sources is a reasonable strategic choice, so the importance of the Eurasian continent forChinaincreases. Central Asia does not play anymore a supporting role in the agenda ofChina’s energy security strategy. It is rather becoming a region of major strategic importance.