Energy-saving Building Materials Research Articles

Room-temperature phosphorescent transparent wood

Transparent wood with high transmittance and versatility has attracted great attention as an energy-saving building material. Many studies have focused on luminescent transparent wood, while the research on organic afterglow transparent wood is an interesting combination. Here, we use luminescent difluoroboron β-diketonate (BF2bdk) compounds, methyl methacrylate (MMA), delignified wood, and initiators to prepare room-temperature phosphorescent transparent wood by thermal initiation polymerization. The resultant PMMA has been found to interact with BF2bdk via dipole-dipole interactions and consequently enhance the intersystem crossing of BF2bdk excited states. The transparent wood matrix can provide a rigid environment for BF2bdk triplets and serve as oxygen barrier to suppress non-radiative decay and oxygen quenching. The prepared afterglow material has the characteristics of diverse composition, long afterglow emission lifetimes, and high photoluminescence quantum yield. This afterglow transparent wood also demonstrates potential application value in areas such as high mechanical strength, good hydrophobicity, and high cost-effectiveness.

Experimental Study on Mechanical Properties of Cured Sand Combined with Plant-Based Bio-cement (PBBC) and Organic Materials.

Bio-cement is a green and energy-saving building material, which has received wide attention in the field of ecological environment and geotechnical engineering in recent years. The aim of this study is to investigate the improvement effect of plant-based bio-cement (PBBC) in synergistic treatment of sand with organic materials, to highlight the effective use of tap water in PBBC, and to analyze the crack evolution pattern during the damage of specimens by using image processing techniques. The results showed that tap water can be used as a solvent for PBBC instead of deionized water. The characteristic trend of urease solutions prepared at different temperature environments was obvious, and the activity value of urease solution with low concentration is positively correlated with the ambient temperature, although the activity value is not high, it is not easy to inactivate. The incorporation of organic materials increased the peak stress up to 1809.30kPa compared to the specimens modified only by PBBC. The damage of the specimens under uniaxial compression consisted of four stages: compaction, elastic deformation, pre-peak brittle damage and post-peak macroscopic damage. The corresponding crack evolution is the interpenetration of small-sized cracks into large-sized main cracks. The large-sized main cracks transform into penetration cracks before damage, and the small-sized cracks are distributed around the penetration cracks. The crack evolution parameters obtained by MATLAB processing are positively correlated with the strain.

Fire-Safe Aerogels and Foams for Thermal Insulation: From Materials to Properties.

The ambition of human beings to create a comfortable environment for work and life in a sustainable way has triggered a great need for advanced thermal insulation materials in past decades. Aerogels and foams present great prospects as thermal insulators owing to their low density, good thermal insulation, mechanical robustness, and even high fire resistance. These merits make them suitable for many real-world applications, such as energy-saving building materials, thermally protective materials in aircrafts and battery, and warming fabrics. Despite great advances, to date there remains a lack of a comprehensive yet critical review on the thermal insulation materials. Herein, recent progresses in fire-safe thermal-insulating aerogels and foams are summarized, and pros/cons of three major categories of aerogels/foams (inorganic, organic and their hybrids) are discussed. Finally, key challenges associated with existing aerogels are discussed and some future opportunities are proposed. This review is expected to expedite the development of advanced aerogels and foams as fire-safe thermally insulating materials, and to help create a sustainable, safe, and energy-efficient society.

Thermal-deformation behaviors of the primary sealants in double, triple, and multi glazed insulating glass units

Polyisobutylene (PIB), commonly used as the primary sealant of double, triple, and multi glazed insulating glass units (IGUs), provides the key moisture barrier function and determines the expected lifespan of the IGUs and even the entire glass curtain wall systems (GCWSs). Slipping and debonding of the PIB, caused by temperature changes, have resulted in numerous instances of premature failure of building envelopes. However, available research is inadequate in accurately evaluating the service environment of IGUs and thermal-deformation behaviors of this energy-saving building material. This paper presented a simplified method for analyzing the thermal environment of IGUs, considering outdoor air temperature, solar radiation, wind speed, and angle to the horizontal. A numerical modeling method was proposed and validated with the heat transfer tests. Three finite element (FE) models were built and utilized for the precise analysis of temperature-induced deformations of double, tripled, and quadruple glazed IGUs. Simplified calculation formulas for the maximum thermal deformation of PIB in the X and Y directions under different temperature conditions were obtained, taking a new concept “cavity-to-pane ratio” into consideration. Finally, the relationship between the PIB’s temperature-induced deformation and its probability was proposed. The results show that the IGUs in Beijing suffer more than 22 % of their time in harsh service conditions where the difference between indoor and outdoor temperatures exceeds 20 °C. For DIGUs, the maximum temperature-induced deformations of the PIB in X (along the short side of the panel) and Y (along the long side of the panel) directions are 0.142 and 0.214 mm, respectively, corresponding to shear strains of 28.4 % and 42.8 % for the PIB with a thickness of only 0.5 mm. For TIGUs, the maximum deformations increase to 0.159 and 0.239 mm, corresponding to shear strains of 31.8 % and 47.8 %. For QIGUs and the other multi-glazed IGUs, these values can increase to 36.8 % and 55.4 % or more. The methodology proposed in this paper aims to lay the groundwork for further addressing premature failure issues and optimizing edge bond constructions of multi-glazed IGUs.

Experimental study on the mechanical properties of desert sand improved by the combination of additives and bio-cement.

Bio-cement is a green and energy-saving building material that has attracted much attention in the field of ecological environment and geotechnical engineering in recent years. The aim of this study is to investigate the use of bio-cement (enzyme-induced calcium carbonate precipitation-EICP) in combination with admixtures for the improvement of desert sands, which can effectively improve the mechanical properties of desert sands and is particularly suitable for sand-rich countries. In addition, the suitability of tap water in bio-cement was elucidated and the optimum ratio of each influencing factor when tap water is used as a solvent was derived. The results showed that peak values of unconfined compressive strength (maximum increase of about 130 times), shear strength (increase of 27.09%), calcium carbonate precipitation value (increase of about 4.39 times), and permeability (decrease of about 93.72 times) were obtained in the specimens modified by EICP combined with admixture as compared to the specimens modified by EICP only. The incorporation of skimmed milk powder, though significantly increasing the strength, is not conducive to cost control. The microscopic tests show that the incorporation of admixtures can provide nucleation sites for EICP, thus improving the properties of desert sand. This work can provide new research ideas for cross-fertilization between the disciplines of bio-engineering, ecology, and civil engineering.

Energy-Efficient Smart Window Based on a Thermochromic Hydrogel with Adjustable Critical Response Temperature and High Solar Modulation Ability.

Thermochromic smart windows realize an intelligent response to changes in environmental temperature through reversible physical phase transitions. They complete a real-time adjustment of solar transmittance, create a livable indoor temperature for humans, and reduce the energy consumption of buildings. Nevertheless, conventional materials that are used to prepare thermochromic smart windows face challenges, including fixed transition temperatures, limited solar modulation capabilities, and inadequate mechanical properties. In this study, a novel thermochromic hydrogel was synthesized from 2-hydroxy-3-butoxypropyl hydroxyethyl celluloses (HBPEC) and poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM) by using a simple one-step low-temperature polymerization method. The HBPEC/PNIPAM hydrogel demonstrates a wide response temperature (24.1-33.2 °C), high light transmittance (Tlum = 87.5%), excellent solar modulation (ΔTsol = 71.2%), and robust mechanical properties. HBPEC is a functional material that can be used to adjust the lower critical solution temperature (LCST) of the smart window over a wide range by changing the degree of substitution (DS) of the butoxy group in its structure. In addition, the use of HBPEC effectively improves the light transmittance and mechanical properties of the hydrogels. After 100 heating and cooling cycles, the hydrogel still has excellent stability. Furthermore, indoor simulation experiments show that HBPEC/PNIPAM hydrogel smart windows have better indoor temperature regulation capabilities than traditional windows, making these smart windows potential candidates for energy-saving building materials.

Enhanced interface and thermal insulation in cement composites using polydopamine-modified hydrophobic silica aerogels

Silica aerogels (SA) have exceptional thermal insulation capabilities, however, their superhydrophobic nature hinders the formation of a uniform composite when combined with cement slurry. To address this issue, an aqueous solution was employed to disperse SA particles using sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS). Subsequently, the dispersed micelles were coated with polydopamine (PDA) through in situ polymerization. This approach effectively enhanced the dispersion of SA in cement slurry and improved its connection force with the cement hydration products, thereby mitigating the adverse effects of aggregated SA on the mechanical properties of the cement composite. The successful PDA coating led to the formation of smaller aggregated micelles, resulting in a 30% improvement in compressive strength of cement composites containing modified SA compared to those using unmodified SA, while maintaining the desired thermal conductivity properties. With a strategic increase in the quantity of modified SA, a remarkable thermal conductivity of 0.1351 W/m·K was achieved without significantly compromising the compressive strength, which reached about 13.94 MPa. This enhanced compressive strength surpassed that of conventional thermal insulation materials like expanded polystyrene (EPS) and foam concrete. Consequently, this novel technique has the potential to markedly enhance the thermal insulation of cement composites without excessively impacting their compressive strength, thus contributing to the development of green insulation and energy-saving building materials.

A fast method to prepare highly isotropic and optically adjustable transparent wood-based composites based on interface optimization

The production design of transparent materials using wood flour as the substrate aims to improve the value-added utilization rate of waste wood, and explore the preparation process of energy-saving building materials. This paper reports a rapid method for the preparation of transparent wood-based composites (TW-OTS) with high isotropy and optical adjustability, which changes the high energy consumption of bleaching wood flour in the past. Using the fluffy and porous structure of wood flour, the wood flour was bleached by hydrogen peroxide drop coating method assisted with ultraviolet light, and then hydrophobicized and impregnated with epoxy resin. The interfacial bonding and optimization mechanism of organic polymer Octadecyl trichlorosilane (OTS), wood fiber and resin at the micro scale were systematically studied in order to improve the optical parameters, mechanical strength and thermal properties of the composites, so as to balance the relationship between the structure and properties. TW-OTS based on interface optimization has excellent transmittance (80.1 %), thermal insulation performance, mechanical strength, and biocompatibility. If 1 % chitosan is added to the resin, the antibacterial properties of the sample can be added. This material can be used in energy-saving building windows, medical equipment, ecological home products, and other fields.

Tri-phase flame retardant system towards advanced energy-saving building materials with highly efficient fire and smoke toxicity reductions

The extensive usage of rigid polyurethane foam (RPUF) as an energy-saving building materials in construction has raised concerns about fire risks and toxic hazards. To address these challenges, a melamine-derived polyol (MADP) was synthesized using the Mannich reaction, resulting in inherently flame-retardant RPUF materials with the introduction of flame-retardant functional groups. Furthermore, a novel MoS2-Cu2O nanohybrid was prepared and employed to enhance flame retardancy and suppress smoke toxicity in RPUF through a cooperative effect with expandable graphite (EG). The resulting M-RPUF/EG/MoS2-Cu2O nanocomposite exhibited remarkable fire safety, as evidenced by significant reductions in peak heat release rate (PHRR), total heat release (THR), total smoke production (TSP), and peak carbon monoxide (CO) release, amounting to 76.9 %, 64 %, 82 %, and 99 % respectively, compared to pristine RPUF. Furthermore, the nanocomposite effectively addressed interfacial defects and significantly enhanced the mechanical property and thermal stability. The significant improvement in fire safety is mainly ascribed to the catalytic charring effect of MADP and EG, as well as the catalytic oxidation of MoS2-Cu2O nanohybrids, resulting in the formation of a thermally stable protective layer in the condensed phase. Based on these results, the integration of the tri-phase flame retardant system holds great potential for advancing the development of fire-safe polyurethane materials.

Influence of Ca(OH)2 modification on the pore structure and properties of porous glass-ceramics stepwise sintered from granite sludge

The utilization of granite sludge offers significant economic and environmental advantages. This study focuses on preparing porous glass-ceramics from Ca(OH)2-modified granite sludge through a two-step sintering process comprising dense sintering and high-temperature foaming, with the addition of 1 % SiC powder as a foaming agent. The impact of foaming temperature and Ca(OH)2 addition on the structure, compressive strength, specific strength, and thermal conductivity of the porous glass-ceramics is examined. Incorporating the Ca(OH)2 modifier reduces the glass's viscosity and effectively eliminates micropores on the pore walls. The former promotes foaming and increases porosity, while the latter increases the specific strength of porous glass-ceramics. Increasing both the foaming temperature and the Ca(OH)2 concentration reduces glass viscosity and promotes mineral dissolution, facilitating the foaming process. However, the specific strength of the porous glass-ceramics initially increases before decreasing due to pore coalescence and excessive mineral dissolution. Theoretical evaluations of compressive strength and thermal conductivity indicate that porous glass-ceramics possess a closed-cell pore structure. Porous glass-ceramic made from granite powder containing 3.5 % Ca(OH)2 and foamed at 1240 °C exhibits an apparent density and porosity of 0.73 g/cm3 and 67.1 %, respectively. The compressive strength and thermal conductivity are 14.2 MPa and 0.422 W/(m·K) respectively, with a peak specific strength of 19.4 kN·m/kg. This innovative process enables the scalable recycling of granite sludge into energy-saving building materials.

Antileakage performance of Schiff base-reinforced thermal energy storage wood for indoor temperature control

Thermal energy storage wood has been rapidly developed as a green and renewable energy-saving building material. In this study, bio-based Schiff bases (VF) were prepared from vanillin and furfurylamine via aldehyde–amine condensation and used as a small molecule fixative. Subsequently, VF and dodecylamine were mixed uniformly and impregnated into rubberwood under pressure, affording thermal energy storage wood (TESW-x%VF). The results revealed that TESW-x%VF exhibited adjustable enthalpy (41.67–88.23 J g−1) and room-temperature phase transition (25°C–27°C). Moreover, the addition of VF improved the antileakage performance of TESW. According to density functional theory calculations, this is because the adsorption energy between VF and dodecylamine molecules has increased by 3–8 times compared to dodecylamine molecules. The above results provide a solution for the leakage issue associated with organic phase-change materials and aid in the future development of energy-saving wood building materials, which also improves the high-value utilization of chemical components in agricultural and forestry crops.

Preparation and Properties of Soft-/Hard-Switchable Transparent Wood with 0 °C as a Boundary

Transparent wood has excellent optical and thermal properties and has great potential utilization value in energy-saving building materials, optoelectronic devices, and decorative materials. In this work, transparent wood with soft-/hard-switchable and shape recovery capabilities was prepared by introducing an epoxy-based polymer with a glass transition temperature of about 0 °C into the delignified wood template. The epoxy resin was well filled in the pore structure of the delignified wood, and the as-prepared wood exhibited excellent transparency; the optical transmittance and haze of the transparent wood with a thickness of 2.0 mm were approximately 70% and 95%, respectively. Because the glass transition temperature of the epoxy-based polymer was about 0 °C, the prepared transparent wood was rigid below 0 °C and flexible above °C; meanwhile, the transparent wood exhibited shape change and shape recovery properties. Incorporating optical transparency and soft-/hard-switchable ability into the transparent wood opens a new avenue for developing advanced functional wood-based materials.

Preparation and mechanical characterization of multi-functional high-ductility engineered magnesium oxysulfate cement-based composites

Aiming at the integrated requirements of building energy saving and thermal insulation reinforcement in reinforcement engineering, the technology of preparing multi-functional high-ductility engineered magnesium oxysulfate cement-based composites (MOSC-ECC) by magnesium oxysulfate cement (MOSC) was proposed; the mechanism of industrial waste fly ash (FA) to improve the ductility of MOSC-ECC was explored; the effects of FA on the density, thermal conductivity and water resistance of MOSC-ECC were studied; the phase composition and microstructure of the hydration products of MOSC-ECC were analyzed. The results show that the incorporation of FA instead of light-burned magnesium oxide (LB-MgO) powder of equal mass can effectively reduce the cracking strength, fracture toughness, density and thermal conductivity of the matrix, and improve the ductility and multiple cracking ability of MOSC-ECC. The incorporation of hydrophobic agent made MOSC-ECC have excellent water resistance. The findings of this study provide useful knowledge for realizing the integrated design of thermal insulation and reinforcement of structures, which is of great significance for promoting the engineering application of ECC and the promotion of energy-saving green building materials.

Shape-Stabilized PEGylated Silica Aerogel-Composite as an Energy Saving Building Material.

Balancing thermal and visual comfort in buildings necessitates effective insulation to counteract heat loss and gain, especially with temperature variances. One promising approach is to combine phase change materials, such as poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG), with high-performance insulators like silica aerogel (Siag). To bolster opto-thermal performance in building envelopes, we introduce a smart insulation composite material through PEG integration, i.e., PEGalyation with Siag. Central to this thermal behavior is the PEG's phase change properties, which foster a shape-stabilized framework with Siag through their porous confinement. Preliminary observations indicate notable capabilities of obstructing near-infrared light while preserving satisfactory visible transparency. An optimized Siag@PEG composite with 5% loading of PEG has the visible range transmission of ∼92%, a decrease of ∼72% in thermal conductivity which is lower than pure glass and PEG, leading to a temperature dependent switchable hydrophobic to hydrophilic wettability characteristics. As a prototype window, the thermal performance evaluation of the synthesized composite, through experimental and computational studies, shows a decrease in indoor temperature of ∼20% with a higher temperature difference of ∼20 °C between outdoor and indoor weather conditions. This lightweight composite can act as sponge media to fill inside the double-paned window and for retrofitting existing glazing to boost the energy efficiency of buildings with facile manufacturing and scalability.

Enhanced thermal conductivity of a superhydrophobic thermal energy storage coating based on artificially cultured diatom frustules

Solid-liquid phase change materials (PCMs) provide an eco-friendly and cost-effective solution for waste heat recovery and thermal management. However, leakage and low thermal conductivity are two long-standing bottlenecks for their large-scale application. Applying a synthesized multi-level porous scaffold to prepare shape-stabilized PCMs (ss-PCMs) is an efficient, but high-cost strategy used to address the above problem. Herein, a strategy for fabricating enhanced thermally conductive ss-PCM coatings has been developed using artificially cultured, hierarchically porous Ag nanoparticle decorated diatom frustules (Ag-DFs) utilizing a facile spray-coating method. The delicate pores and high specific surface area (101.78 m2/g) endow the Ag-DFs to adsorb 55 wt% of paraffin wax (PW) without leakage, thereby exhibiting a melting enthalpy of 114.27 J/g. The corresponding ss-PCM coatings demonstrate a thermal conductivity of 0.87 W/m·K, which is ∼ 2.95-fold higher than pure PW. In addition, the abundant micro/nanoscale texture in the Ag-DFs along with the low-surface-energy of PW synergistically produce superhydrophobicity in the coating, thereby improving its ability to resist external environmental impacts, extending the service life. With high energy storage density, enhanced thermal conductivity, and good scalability, our superhydrophobic ss-PCM coating should find potential use in energy-saving building materials and thermal management of electrical devices, as well as self-cleaning surfaces.

A Simpler Fabrication for Thermal Energy Storage Wood

Using thermal energy storage wood with phase change materials (PCM) as a building material can save thermal energy during heat-induced phase transition, and can reduce the energy consumption of indoor heating. In our work, three thermal energy storage poplars (TESPs: TESP-1, TESP-2 and TESP-3) were prepared by directly infiltrating three PCMs (fatty alcohol/acid materials: lauryl alcohol, decanoic acid and myristic acid myristyl ester), respectively, into the longitudinal-cutting plantation poplar woods and by directly encapsulating the PCMs in the poplar-based materials with SiO2 films. The phase-changing temperature ranges of TESP-1, TESP-2 and TESP-3 were at 19–30 °C, 26–39 °C and 33–54 °C, respectively. The phase-changing temperature peaks were at ~24 °C, ~31 °C and ~42 °C, respectively. After the same heat treatment on TESPs and original poplar (OP), the average temperature of TESPs was higher than that of OP after 35 min, thus proving that TESPs can save more thermal energy than OP. The radial bending strengths of TESP-1, TESP-2 and TESP-3 had increased by 50.85%, 70.16% and 70.31%, respectively, as compared to with that of OP. Additionally, the radial bending elastic modules of TESP-1, TESP-2 and TESP-3 had increased by 47.14%, 67.38% and 74.57%, respectively, as compared to OP. The tangential section hardness of the TESPs also had also increased by 67.09%, 71.80% and 80.77%, respectively. These improved mechanical properties of TESPs are almost close to that of ash wood (ash wood is a common building material), therefore, this proves that our TESPs can be used as thermal energy-saving building materials.

Facile fabrication of multifunctional energy-saving building materials with excellent thermal insulation, robust mechanical property and ultrahigh flame retardancy

Rigid polyurethane foam (RPUF) has received extensive attention as an energy-saving building material. However, it is still a great challenge to easily fabricate multifunctional RPUFs that combine excellent mechanical properties, flame retardancy, and thermal insulation. Herein, ammonium polyphosphate was chemically modified with 2-aminobenzimidazole (APP@Abz) through an ion exchange reaction. It has been found that APP@Abz is well-dispersed in RPUF matrix. FR-RPUF3 containing 10.0 wt% of APP@Abz shows excellent thermal insulation performance with a 5% increase in thermal conductivity compared to virgin RPUF. In addition, FR-RPUF3 exhibits ultrahigh flame retardancy and smoke suppression (total heat release, total smoke production, and smoke factor decreased by 50.61%, 61.90%, and 64.70%, respectively) in comparison to virgin RPUF. More importantly, FR-RPUF3 exhibits improved mechanical properties and hydrophobicity compared to virgin RPUF. This study is of great importance for the development and application of building insulation materials.

Application of energy-saving building’s designing methods in marine cities

From the perspective of the relevant concept of green development, the use of energy-saving building materials in marine cities can not only effectively meet the requirements of green and healthy buildings, as well as environmental protection and low energy that urban people are concerned about, so how to fully use energy-saving building materials in the design of marine city’s buildings has become the focus of research. In view of this, this paper first explains the importance of the application of energy-saving building materials in architectural design, and introducing the significance of using energy-saving architectural design in marine cities, and then uses a swot analysis to examine the benefits and drawbacks of developing energy-saving building materials. Finally, concrete methods for incorporating energy-saving materials and technologies into marine city architecture design are summarized, and deeply analyzes how to apply energy-saving building materials well in marine city architectural design, aiming to better realize the concept of healthy development of building ecology in marine cities, which will help to promote the use of renewable energy in marine city architecture.

Sustainable Thermal Energy Batteries from Fully Bio-Based Transparent Wood.

The sustainable development of functional energy-saving building materials is important for reducing thermal energy consumption and promoting natural indoor lighting. Phase-change materials embedded in wood-based materials are candidates for thermal energy storage. However, the renewable resource content is usually insufficient, the energy storage and mechanical properties are poor, and the sustainability aspect is unexplored. Here a novel fully bio-based transparent wood (TW) biocomposite for thermal energy storage, combining excellent heat storage properties, tunable optical transmittance, and mechanical performance is introduced. A bio-based matrix based on a synthesized limonene acrylate monomer and renewable 1-dodecanol is impregnated and in situ polymerized within mesoporous wood substrates. The TW demonstrates high latent heat (89Jg-1 ) exceeding commercial gypsum panels, combined with thermo-responsive optical transmittance (up to 86%) and mechanical strength up to 86MPa. The life cycle assessment shows that the bio-based TW has a 39% lower environmental impact than transparent polycarbonate panels. The bio-based TW holds great potential as scalable and sustainable transparent heat storage solution.

Phase-Change-Material-Impregnated Wood for Potential Energy-Saving Building Materials

PCMs (phase change materials) are ideal for thermal management solutions in buildings. This is because they release and store thermal energy during melting and freezing. When this material freezes, it releases a lot of energy in the form of latent heat of fusion or crystallization energy. Conversely, when the material melts, it absorbs the same amount of energy from its surroundings as it changes from a solid to a liquid state. In this study, Oriental spruce (Picea orientalis L.) sapwood was impregnated with three different commercial PCMs. The biological properties and the hygroscopic and thermal performance of the PCM-impregnated wood were studied. The morphology of PCM-impregnated wood was characterized through the use of scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). PCM-impregnated wood demonstrated low performance in terms of storing and releasing heat during phase change processes, as confirmed by DSC. The results show that PCMs possess excellent thermal stability at working temperatures, and the most satisfying sample is PCM1W, with a phase change enthalpy of 40.34 J/g and a phase change temperature of 21.49 °C. This study revealed that PCMs are resistant to wood-destroying fungi. After the 96 h water absorption test, the water absorption of the wood samples decreased by 28%, and the tangential swelling decreased by 75%. In addition, it has been proven on a laboratory scale that the PCM material used is highly resistant to biological attacks. However, large-scale pilot studies are still needed.