Energy-resolved Photon Counting Research Articles

TH-AB-209-11: Breast Microcalcification Classification Using Spectral X-Ray Coherent Scatter Computed Tomography

Purpose: To investigate the ability of Coherent Scatter Computed Tomography (CSCT) to distinguish non-invasively between type I calcifications, consisting of calcium oxalate dihydrate (CO) compounds which are more often associated with benign lesions, and type II calcifications containing hydroxyapatite (HA) which are predominantly associated with malignant tumors. Methods: The coherent scatter cross sections of HA and CO were measured using an energy dispersive x-ray diffractometer. The measured cross sections were introduced into MC-GPU Monte Carlo simulation code for studying the applicability of CSCT to discriminate between the two types of microcalcifications within the whole breast. Simulations were performed on a virtual phantom with inserted HA and CO spots of different sizes and placed in regions of interest having different background compositions. We considered a polychromatic x-ray source and an energy resolving photon counting detector. We applied an algorithm that estimates scatter components in projection space in order to obtain material-specific images of the breast. As material components adipose, glandular, HA and CO were used. The relative contrast of HA and CO components were used for type I and type II microcalcification discrimination. Results: The reconstructed CSCT images showed material-specific component-contrast values, with the highest CO or HA component contrast corresponding generally to the actual CO or HA feature, respectively. The discrimination performance varies with the x-ray intensity, calcification size, and background composition. The results were summarized using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis with the area under the curve (AUC) taken as an overall indicator of discrimination performance and showing high AUC values up to unity. Conclusion: The simulation results obtained for a uniform breast imaging phantom indicate that CSCT has potential to be used as a non-invasive method for discrimination between type I and type II microcalcifications.

A novel scatter separation method for multi-energy x-ray imaging

X-ray imaging coupled with recently emerged energy-resolved photon counting detectors provides the ability to differentiate material components and to estimate their respective thicknesses. However, such techniques require highly accurate images. The presence of scattered radiation leads to a loss of spatial contrast and, more importantly, a bias in radiographic material imaging and artefacts in computed tomography (CT). The aim of the present study was to introduce and evaluate a partial attenuation spectral scatter separation approach (PASSSA) adapted for multi-energy imaging. This evaluation was carried out with the aid of numerical simulations provided by an internal simulation tool, Sindbad-SFFD. A simplified numerical thorax phantom placed in a CT geometry was used. The attenuation images and CT slices obtained from corrected data showed a remarkable increase in local contrast and internal structure detectability when compared to uncorrected images. Scatter induced bias was also substantially decreased. In terms of quantitative performance, the developed approach proved to be quite accurate as well. The average normalized root-mean-square error between the uncorrected projections and the reference primary projections was around 23%. The application of PASSSA reduced this error to around 5%. Finally, in terms of voxel value accuracy, an increase by a factor >10 was observed for most inspected volumes-of-interest, when comparing the corrected and uncorrected total volumes.

THE ARCONS PIPELINE: DATA REDUCTION FOR MKID ARRAYS

The Array Camera for Optical to Near-IR Spectrophotometry, or ARCONS, is a camera based on Microwave Kinetic Inductance Detectors (MKIDs), a new technology that has the potential for broad application in astronomy. Using an array of MKIDs, the instrument is able to produce time-resolved imaging and low-resolution spectroscopy constructed from detections of individual photons. The arrival time and energy of each photon are recorded in a manner similar to X-ray calorimetry, but at higher photon fluxes. The technique works over a very large wavelength range, is free from fundamental read noise and dark-current limitations, and provides microsecond-level timing resolution. Since the instrument reads out all pixels continuously while exposing, there is no loss of active exposure time to readout. The technology requires a different approach to data reduction compared to conventional CCDs. We outline here the prototype data reduction pipeline developed for ARCONS, though many of the principles are also more broadly applicable to energy-resolved photon counting arrays (e.g., transition edge sensors, superconducting tunnel junctions). We describe the pipeline's current status, and the algorithms and techniques employed in taking data from the arrival of photons at the MKID array to the production of images, spectra, and time-resolved light curves.

Digital performance improvements of a CdTe pixel detector for high flux energy-resolved X-ray imaging

Photon counting detectors with energy resolving capabilities are desired for high flux X-ray imaging. In this work, we present the performance of a pixelated Schottky Al/p-CdTe/Pt detector (4×4) coupled to a custom-designed digital readout electronics for high flux measurements. The detector (4×4×2mm3) has an anode layout based on an array of 16 pixels with a geometric pitch of 1mm (pixel size of 0.6mm). The 4-channel readout electronics is able to continuously digitize and process the signals from each pixel, performing multi-parameter analysis (event arrival time, pulse shape, pulse height, pulse time width, etc.) even at high fluxes and at different throughput and energy resolution conditions. The spectroscopic response of the system to monochromatic X-ray sources, at both low and high rates, is presented with particular attention to the mitigation of some typical spectral distortions (pile-up, baseline shifts and charge sharing). At a photon counting rate of 520kcps/pixel, the system exhibits an energy resolution (FWHM at 59.5keV) of 4.6%, 7.1% and 9% at throughputs of 0.9%, 16% and 82%, respectively. Measurements of Ag-target X-ray spectra also show the ability of the system to perform accurate estimation of the input counting rate up to 1.1Mcps/pixel.The aim of this work is to point out, beside the appealing properties of CdTe detectors, the benefits of the digital approach in the development of high-performance energy resolved photon counting (ERPC) systems for high flux X-ray imaging.

Energy dispersive CdTe and CdZnTe detectors for spectral clinical CT and NDT applications

We are developing room temperature compound semiconductor detectors for applications in energy-resolved high-flux single x-ray photon-counting spectral computed tomography (CT), including functional imaging with nanoparticle contrast agents for medical applications and non-destructive testing (NDT) for security applications. Energy-resolved photon-counting can provide reduced patient dose through optimal energy weighting for a particular imaging task in CT, functional contrast enhancement through spectroscopic imaging of metal nanoparticles in CT, and compositional analysis through multiple basis function material decomposition in CT and NDT. These applications produce high input count rates from an x-ray generator delivered to the detector. Therefore, in order to achieve energy-resolved single photon counting in these applications, a high output count rate (OCR) for an energy-dispersive detector must be achieved at the required spatial resolution and across the required dynamic range for the application. The required performance in terms of the OCR, spatial resolution, and dynamic range must be obtained with sufficient field of view (FOV) for the application thus requiring the tiling of pixel arrays and scanning techniques. Room temperature cadmium telluride (CdTe) and cadmium zinc telluride (CdZnTe) compound semiconductors, operating as direct conversion x-ray sensors, can provide the required speed when connected to application specific integrated circuits (ASICs) operating at fast peaking times with multiple fixed thresholds per pixel provided the sensors are designed for rapid signal formation across the x-ray energy ranges of the application at the required energy and spatial resolutions, and at a sufficiently high detective quantum efficiency (DQE). We have developed high-flux energy-resolved photon-counting x-ray imaging array sensors using pixellated CdTe and CdZnTe semiconductors optimized for clinical CT and security NDT. We have also fabricated high-flux ASICs with a two dimensional (2D) array of inputs for readout from the sensors. The sensors are guard ring free and have a 2D array of pixels and can be tiled in 2D while preserving pixel pitch. The 2D ASICs have four energy bins with a linear energy response across sufficient dynamic range for clinical CT and some NDT applications. The ASICs can also be tiled in 2D and are designed to fit within the active area of the sensors. We have measured several important performance parameters including: the output count rate (OCR) in excess of 20 million counts per second per square mm with a minimum loss of counts due to pulse pile-up, an energy resolution of 7keV full width at half-maximum (FWHM) across the entire dynamic range, and a noise floor about 20keV. This is achieved by directly interconnecting the ASIC inputs to the pixels of the CdZnTe sensors incurring very little input capacitance to the ASICs. We present measurements of the performance of the CdTe and CdZnTe sensors including the OCR, FWHM energy resolution, noise floor, as well as the temporal stability and uniformity under the rapidly varying high flux expected in CT and NDT applications.

WE-A-BRF-01: Dual-Energy CT Imaging in Diagnostic Imaging and Radiation Therapy

The quantification accuracy of dual-energy imaging is influenced by the fundamentals of x-ray physics, system geometry, data acquisition hardware/protocol, system calibration, and image processing technique. This symposium will provide updates on the following advanced application areas: Mammography. Volumetric breast density techniques based on standard mammograms require estimation of breast thickness, which is difficult to accurately measure. By comparison, calculation of breast density using dual energy mammography does not require measurement of breast thickness. Dual energy mammography has been implemented using both energy integrating flat panel detectors in conjunction with beam energy switching and energy resolved photon counting detectors. These techniques have been optimized using simulation studies and validated using physical phantoms and postmortem breasts. Chemical decomposition was used as the gold standard for volumetric breast density measurement in postmortem breasts. Breast density measurements have also been compared with results from four-category BI-RADS density rankings, standard image thresholding and Fuzzy k-mean clustering techniques. These studies indicate that dual energy mammography can be used to accurately measure volumetric breast density. Cardiovascular CT. The predicative accuracy of risk models for recurrent stroke and cardiac arrest depends heavily on accurate differentiation of thrombus or calcium from iodine in left atrial appendage or coronary arteries. The amount of energy separation is constrained by image noise; therefore, optimal kVp, beam filtration, and balanced flux are essential for the quantification accuracy of iodine and calcium. The basis materials are combined linearly to generate monochromatic energy images, where CT# accuracy and CNR are energy dependent. With optimal monochromatic energy, the mean iodine concentration for the thrombus, circulatory stasis, and control groups are significantly different. Risk classification based on calcium scores shows excellent agreement with classification on the basis of conventional coronary artery calcium scoring. These studies demonstrate dual-energy cardiovascular CT can potentially be a noninvasive and sensitive modality in high risk patients. On-board KV/MV Imaging. To enhance soft tissue contrast and reduce metal artifacts, we have developed a dual-energy CBCT technique and a novel on-board kV/MV imaging technique based on hardware available on modern linear accelerators. We have also evaluated the feasibility of these two techniques in various phantom studies. Optimal techniques (energy, beam filtration, # of overlapping projections, etc) have been investigated with unique calibration procedures, which leads to successful decomposition of imaged material into acrylic-aluminum basis material pair. This enables the synthesis of virtual monochromatic (VM) CBCT images that demonstrate much less beam hardening, significantly reduced metal artifacts, and/or higher soft tissue CNR compared to single-energy CBCT. Adaptive Radiation Therapy. DECT could actually contribute to the area of Dose-Guided Radiation Therapy (or Adaptive Therapy). The application of DECT imaging using 80kV and 140 kV combinations could potentially increase the image quality by reducing the bone or high density material artifacts and also increase the soft tissue contrast by a light contrast agent. The result of this higher contrast / quality images is beneficial for deformable image registration / segmentation algorithm to improve its accuracy hence to make adaptive therapy less time consuming in its recontouring process. The real time re-planning prior to per treatment fraction could become more realistic with this improvement especially in hypofractional SBRT cases. Learning Objectives: 1. Learn recent developments of dual-energy imaging in diagnosis and radiation therapy; 2. Understand the unique clinical problem and required quantification accuracy in each application; 3. Understand the different approaches to optimize dual-energy imaging techniques for different applications.

TU-F-18A-08: Effect of Quantum Detection Efficiency and Energy Bin Selection On Contrast-To-Noise-Ratio for Energy-Resolved Photon-Counting Detectors

Purpose: Energy-resolved photon-counting detectors have the capability to discriminate photons according to their energies. By using optimal energy weighting factors, the contrast-to-noise-ratio (CNR) of the reconstructed image can be improved. In this work, we investigate how quantum detection efficiency (QDE) affects the determination of the optimal energy threshold bins, and therefore the CNR improvement of photon-counting detectors. Methods: In this simulation study a photon-counting detector, based on Silicon (Si), was investigated. A task-oriented algorithm was used to determine the optimal energy bin setting in order to maximize CNR. Projection-based and Image-based energy weighting techniques were implemented. A 13 mm PMMA phantom with two contrast materials, hydroxyapatite (HA) and iodine (I), at different concentrations (100, 200, and 300 mg/mL for HA and 2, 4, and 8 mg/mL for I) was used. TASMIP algorithm was used to generate the spectrum with 2.7 mm Al filter. Different tube voltages, number of energy bins, and bin widths were investigated. Different thicknesses of Si were also investigated to determine the QDE effect on CNR. Results: CNR increased as the detector material thickness increased until it reached 30 mm for Si thickness such that the CNR value was near to the value predicted by an idealmore » detector. Also, the results indicated that the improvement of CNR due to the QDE is task-dependent when comparing weighted images to photon-counting images. For hydroxyapatite the improvement is approximately 20%, whereas for iodine it is less than 10%. Conclusion: The results showed that the improvement of CNR for an energy-resolved photon-counting detector is highly task-dependent when QDE is taken into account.« less

Optimization of K-edge imaging for vulnerable plaques using gold nanoparticles and energy resolved photon counting detectors: a simulation study

We investigated the effect of different imaging parameters, such as dose, beam energy, energy resolution and the number of energy bins, on the image quality of K-edge spectral computed tomography (CT) of gold nanoparticles (GNP) accumulated in an atherosclerotic plaque. A maximum likelihood technique was employed to estimate the concentration of GNP, which served as a targeted intravenous contrast material intended to detect the degree of the plaque's inflammation. The simulation studies used a single-slice parallel beam CT geometry with an x-ray beam energy ranging between 50 and 140 kVp. The synthetic phantoms included small (3 cm in diameter) cylinder and chest (33 × 24 cm2) phantoms, where both phantoms contained tissue, calcium and gold. In the simulation studies, GNP quantification and background (calcium and tissue) suppression tasks were pursued. The x-ray detection sensor was represented by an energy resolved photon counting detector (e.g., CdZnTe) with adjustable energy bins. Both ideal and more realistic (12% full width at half maximum (FWHM) energy resolution) implementations of the photon counting detector were simulated. The simulations were performed for the CdZnTe detector with a pixel pitch of 0.5–1 mm, which corresponds to a performance without significant charge sharing and cross-talk effects. The Rose model was employed to estimate the minimum detectable concentration of GNPs. A figure of merit (FOM) was used to optimize the x-ray beam energy (kVp) to achieve the highest signal-to-noise ratio with respect to the patient dose. As a result, the successful identification of gold and background suppression was demonstrated. The highest FOM was observed at the 125 kVp x-ray beam energy. The minimum detectable GNP concentration was determined to be approximately 1.06 µmol mL−1 (0.21 mg mL−1) for an ideal detector and about 2.5 µmol mL−1 (0.49 mg mL−1) for a more realistic (12% FWHM) detector. The studies show the optimal imaging parameters at the lowest patient dose using an energy resolved photon counting detector to image GNP in an atherosclerotic plaque.

Investigation of energy weighting using an energy discriminating photon counting detector for breast CT

Breast CT is an emerging imaging technique that can portray the breast in 3D and improve visualization of important diagnostic features. Early clinical studies have suggested that breast CT has sufficient spatial and contrast resolution for accurate detection of masses and microcalcifications in the breast, reducing structural overlap that is often a limiting factor in reading mammographic images. For a number of reasons, image quality in breast CT may be improved by use of an energy resolving photon counting detector. In this study, the authors investigate the improvements in image quality obtained when using energy weighting with an energy resolving photon counting detector as compared to that with a conventional energy integrating detector. Using computer simulation, realistic CT images of multiple breast phantoms were generated. The simulation modeled a prototype breast CT system using an amorphous silicon (a-Si), CsI based energy integrating detector with different x-ray spectra, and a hypothetical, ideal CZT based photon counting detector with capability of energy discrimination. Three biological signals of interest were modeled as spherical lesions and inserted into breast phantoms; hydroxyapatite (HA) to represent microcalcification, infiltrating ductal carcinoma (IDC), and iodine enhanced infiltrating ductal carcinoma (IIDC). Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of these three lesions was measured from the CT reconstructions. In addition, a psychophysical study was conducted to evaluate observer performance in detecting microcalcifications embedded into a realistic anthropomorphic breast phantom. In the energy range tested, improvements in SNR with a photon counting detector using energy weighting was higher (than the energy integrating detector method) by 30%-63% and 4%-34%, for HA and IDC lesions and 12%-30% (with Al filtration) and 32%-38% (with Ce filtration) for the IIDC lesion, respectively. The average area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) for detection of microcalcifications was higher by greater than 19% (for the different energy weighting methods tested) as compared to the AUC obtained with an energy integrating detector. This study showed that breast CT with a CZT photon counting detector using energy weighting can provide improvements in pixel SNR, and detectability of microcalcifications as compared to that with a conventional energy integrating detector. Since a number of degrading physical factors were not modeled into the photon counting detector, this improvement should be considered as an upper bound on achievable performance.

TH-A-103-08: System Optimization of Spectral Breast CT Based On An Energy-Resolved Photon-Counting Si Strip Detector: A Simulation Study

Purpose: To determine the optimal design parameters for a high resolution spectral breast CT system based on an energy-resolved photon counting Si strip detector for breast imaging. Methods: A simulation package was developed for a spectral breast CT system. The focal spot size (100 to 300 μm), magnification (1.1 to 1.4), motion blurring and detector pixel size (intrinsic pixel pitch and 4×4 pixel binning) were considered to optimize the system design. Simulations were conducted using single slice fan beam geometry at 60 kVp with 2 mm Al filter. The system modulation transfer functions (MTFs) were calculated from reconstructed image of a 10 μm diameter tungsten wire. The performance of the system with optimal design parameters was evaluated with a simulated breast phantom. A 14 cm diameter cylindrical phantom made of breast tissue with 20% glandularity was used to simulate an average-sized breast. The soft tissue lesions and microcalcifications were simulated with spheres of glandular tissues (1,2, and 4 mm in diameter) and hydroxyapatite (100 to 250 μm in diameter), respectively. Results: The spatial frequencies at 10 % of the maximum MTF was calculated to be 1.6 lp/mm and 6.4 lp/mm with and without a 4 x 4 pixel binning, respectively. The optimal system magnification was estimated to be 1.2. There was minimal improvement in system MTF when the x-ray tube focal spot size was changed from 300 to 100 μm. In the simulated breast phantom image, 100 μm microcalcifications can be clearly identified and the soft tissue contrast-to-noise ratio was improved with separate image processing, where 4×4 pixel binning was used at a dose level of 6 mGy. Conclusion: The simulation results show that the proposed system can potentially detect micro-calcifications and soft tissue lesions with a dose level equivalent to that of a standard two-view mammography.

TH-A-103-05: Characterization of An Energy-Resolved Photon-Counting Si Strip Detector for Breast CT Imaging

Purpose: To investigate the characteristics of a high resolution energy‐resolved photon‐counting Si strip detector for breast CT imaging. Methods: A prototype Si strip detector was studied for breast CT imaging. A bench‐top CT system was constructed using a tungsten anode x‐ray source with a focal spot of 0.8 mm and a single line Si strip detector with 256 pixels and pixel pitch of 100 μm. A 38 μm diameter tungsten wire phantom was used to determine the point spread function (PSF) of the detector. The tungsten wire phantom was positioned 110 and 7.5cm from the x‐ray tube focal spot and detector, respectively. The system MTF was measured using reconstructed images. For the noise power spectrum (NPS), three different exposures 16, 31, and 46 μGy were used. Flat field images were acquired with and without electric noise at each exposure to investigate the effect of detector's electric noise on the noise property. The simulations with the same phantom and system geometry were also performed for validation purposes. A 16 cm water phantom, which contains various diameters (76, 102, 152, 203, and 254 μm) of aluminum (Al) wire was investigated to confirm the simulation and experimental results. Results: The desired resolution of 100 μm, corresponding to a spatial frequency of 5 lp/mm was demonstrated in both simulation and experimental results. A higher normalized NPS was measured when electronic noise included. The relationship between measured and known diameter for Al wires was quite linear except for the smallest Al wire which is smaller than detector pixel size. Conclusion: The performance of the prototype Si strip detector was evaluated using MTF and NPS. The results show that the investigated detector has excellent potential for high resolution breast imaging at low radiation dose levels.

First imaging result with an ultrahigh resolution stationary MR compatible SPECT system.

In this paper, we will present the design and preliminary performance of an ultrahigh resolution stationary MR compatible SPECT (MRC-SPECT) system that is developed in our lab. The MRC-SPECT system is based on the second-generation energy-resolved photon-counting (ERPC) CdTe detectors and there are several key features associated with this system. Firstly, up to a total of twenty ERPC detectors will be assembled as a very compact ring, which provides an adequate angular sampling capability and a relatively high detection efficiency. The detectors are supported on a gantry made of high strength polyamide structure constructed using 3-D printing. This compact system can be directly operated inside an MR scanner. The detector module used in this system offers an intrinsic resolution of 350μm and an excellent energy resolution of around 3~4kev. Each ERPC detector module consists of four pixelated CdTe detectors with a total dimension of 4.5cm×2.25cm. Secondly, a die-cast platinum pinhole inserts and cast lead apertures are developed for this stationary SPECT system. Four 300/500μm diameter pinholes are used for each detector and all pinholes are mounted around a casted cylinder lead aperture tube. The inner diameter of the lead aperture tube is 6cm and the lead tube thickness is 16mm. The opposite detectors are placed 15.6cm apart and the magnification factor of this SPECT system is about 1.2. Thirdly, a comprehensive charge collection model inside strong magnetic field has been developed to account for the magnetic field induced distortion in the SPECT image. This model can accurately predict the detector's energy and spatial response to gamma ray incident events and then help to compensate for the event position recording error due to the strong magnetic field. In this development, we have made an effort to minimize the amount of magnetic materials in the system to alleviate potential interference to magnetic field inhomogeneity.

A Monte Carlo simulation study of the effect of energy windows in computed tomography images based on an energy-resolved photon counting detector

The energy-resolved photon counting detector provides the spectral information that can be used to generate images. The novel imaging methods, including the K-edge imaging, projection-based energy weighting imaging and image-based energy weighting imaging, are based on the energy-resolved photon counting detector and can be realized by using various energy windows or energy bins. The location and width of the energy windows or energy bins are important because these techniques generate an image using the spectral information defined by the energy windows or energy bins. In this study, the reconstructed images acquired with K-edge imaging, projection-based energy weighting imaging and image-based energy weighting imaging were simulated using the Monte Carlo simulation. The effect of energy windows or energy bins was investigated with respect to the contrast, coefficient-of-variation (COV) and contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR). The three images were compared with respect to the CNR. We modeled the x-ray computed tomography system based on the CdTe energy-resolved photon counting detector and polymethylmethacrylate phantom, which have iodine, gadolinium and blood. To acquire K-edge images, the lower energy thresholds were fixed at K-edge absorption energy of iodine and gadolinium and the energy window widths were increased from 1 to 25 bins. The energy weighting factors optimized for iodine, gadolinium and blood were calculated from 5, 10, 15, 19 and 33 energy bins. We assigned the calculated energy weighting factors to the images acquired at each energy bin. In K-edge images, the contrast and COV decreased, when the energy window width was increased. The CNR increased as a function of the energy window width and decreased above the specific energy window width. When the number of energy bins was increased from 5 to 15, the contrast increased in the projection-based energy weighting images. There is a little difference in the contrast, when the number of energy bin is increased from 15 to 33. The COV of the background in the projection-based energy weighting images is only slightly changed as a function of the number of energy bins. In the image-based energy weighting images, when the number of energy bins were increased, the contrast and COV increased and decreased, respectively. The CNR increased as a function of the number of energy bins. It was concluded that the image quality is dependent on the energy window, and an appropriate choice of the energy window is important to improve the image quality.

A High-Rate Energy-Resolving Photon-Counting ASIC for Spectral Computed Tomography

We describe a high-rate energy-resolving photon-counting ASIC aimed for spectral computed tomography. The chip has 160 channels and 8 energy bins per channel. It demonstrates a noise level of ENC =214 electrons at 5 pF input load at a power consumption of <; 5 mW/channel. Maximum count rate is 17 Mcps at a peak time of 40 ns, made possible through a new filter reset scheme, and maximum read-out frame rate is 37 kframe/s.

A theoretical comparison of x-ray angiographic image quality using energy-dependent and conventional subtraction methods

X-ray digital subtraction angiography (DSA) is widely used for vascular imaging. However, the need to subtract a mask image can result in motion artifacts and compromised image quality. The current interest in energy-resolving photon-counting (EPC) detectors offers the promise of eliminating motion artifacts and other advanced applications using a single exposure. The authors describe a method of assessing the iodine signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) that may be achieved with energy-resolved angiography (ERA) to enable a direct comparison with other approaches including DSA and dual-energy angiography for the same patient exposure. A linearized noise-propagation approach, combined with linear expressions of dual-energy and energy-resolved imaging, is used to describe the iodine SNR. The results were validated by a Monte Carlo calculation for all three approaches and compared visually for dual-energy and DSA imaging using a simple angiographic phantom with a CsI-based flat-panel detector. The linearized SNR calculations show excellent agreement with Monte Carlo results. While dual-energy methods require an increased tube heat load of 2× to 4× compared to DSA, and photon-counting detectors are not yet ready for angiographic imaging, the available iodine SNR for both methods as tested is within 10% of that of conventional DSA for the same patient exposure over a wide range of patient thicknesses and iodine concentrations. While the energy-based methods are not necessarily optimized and further improvements are likely, the linearized noise-propagation analysis provides the theoretical framework of a level playing field for optimization studies and comparison with conventional DSA. It is concluded that both dual-energy and photon-counting approaches have the potential to provide similar angiographic image quality to DSA.

SU‐D‐301‐03: Next‐Generation Angiography: A Theoretical Comparison of Signal and Noise in Photon‐Counting and Dual‐Energy Approaches

Purpose: Energy‐resolving photon‐counting (EPC) x‐ray detectors are being developed in a number of research laboratories around the world. An exciting prospect for these detectors is the ability to suppress non‐iodinated structures in an angiographic image without motion artifacts that limit the use of conventional digital subtraction angiography (DSA). However, dual‐energy technology also has the potential to provide background‐removed angiograms without motion artifacts. We develop a general theoretical framework for estimating image signal and noise in background‐suppression techniques in angiography and use it to directly compare image quality in dual‐energy angiography (DEA) with image quality anticipated using EPC detectors Methods: We developed a method for estimating iodine signal and noise in a general background‐removal technique that uses either energy‐ integrating or EPC x‐ray detectors. We applied the developed framework to the task of separating iodine from soft tissue using DEA with low and high applied tube voltages of 50 kV and 80 kV, respectively, and energy‐resolved angiography (ERA) with a 70‐kV applied tube voltage and an EPC detector with three energy bins. We compared the signal‐difference‐to‐noise ratio (SDNR) in an iodine specific image that could be obtained with each technique. We compared the theoretical predictions to calculations obtained using Monte Carlo simulations of the same imaging task. Results: Under the imaging conditions considered, SDNR obtained using ERA is only higher than that obtained using DEA by a factor of 1.1. The theoretical SDNR predictions compared very well with results from the Monte Carlo calculations for both DEA and ERA. Conclusions: We found that, for the task of isolating iodine in soft‐tissue, SDNR obtained with ERA is only greater than that obtained with DEA by 10 % for the same patient entrance exposure. This suggests that research resources may be better spent on developing dual energy methods by improving detectors for dual‐energy applications.

Performance simulation of an x-ray detector for spectral CT with combined Si and Cd[Zn]Te detection layers

The most obvious problem in obtaining spectral information with energy-resolving photon counting detectors in clinical computed tomography (CT) is the huge x-ray flux present in conventional CT systems. At high tube voltages (e.g. 140 kVp), despite the beam shaper, this flux can be close to 109 Mcps mm−2 in the direct beam or in regions behind the object, which are close to the direct beam. Without accepting the drawbacks of truncated reconstruction, i.e. estimating missing direct-beam projection data, a photon-counting energy-resolving detector has to be able to deal with such high count rates. Sub-structuring pixels into sub-pixels is not enough to reduce the count rate per pixel to values that today's direct converting Cd[Zn]Te material can cope with (⩽10 Mcps in an optimistic view). Below 300 µm pixel pitch, x-ray cross-talk (Compton scatter and K-escape) and the effect of charge diffusion between pixels are problematic. By organising the detector in several different layers, the count rate can be further reduced. However this alone does not limit the count rates to the required level, since the high stopping power of the material becomes a disadvantage in the layered approach: a simple absorption calculation for 300 µm pixel pitch shows that the required layer thickness of below 10 Mcps/pixel for the top layers in the direct beam is significantly below 100 µm. In a horizontal multi-layer detector, such thin layers are very difficult to manufacture due to the brittleness of Cd[Zn]Te. In a vertical configuration (also called edge-on illumination (Ludqvist et al 2001 IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 48 1530–6, Roessl et al 2008 IEEE NSS-MIC-RTSD 2008, Conf. Rec. Talk NM2-3)), bonding of the readout electronics (with pixel pitches below 100 µm) is not straightforward although it has already been done successfully (Pellegrini et al 2004 IEEE NSS MIC 2004 pp 2104–9). Obviously, for the top detector layers, materials with lower stopping power would be advantageous. The possible choices are, however, quite limited, since only ‘mature’ materials, which operate at room temperature and can be manufactured reliably should reasonably be considered. Since GaAs is still known to cause reliability problems, the simplest choice is Si, however with the drawback of strong Compton scatter which can cause considerable inter-pixel cross-talk. To investigate the potential and the problems of Si in a multi-layer detector, in this paper the combination of top detector layers made of Si with lower layers made of Cd[Zn]Te is studied by using Monte Carlo simulated detector responses. It is found that the inter-pixel cross-talk due to Compton scatter is indeed very high; however, with an appropriate cross-talk correction scheme, which is also described, the negative effects of cross-talk are shown to be removed to a very large extent.

The role of x‐ray Swank factor in energy‐resolving photon‐counting imaging

Energy-resolved x-ray imaging has the potential to improve contrast-to-noise ratio by measuring the energy of each interacting photon and applying optimal weighting factors. The success of energy-resolving photon-counting (EPC) detectors relies on the ability of an x-ray detector to accurately measure the energy of each interacting photon. However, the escape of characteristic emissions and Compton scatter degrades spectral information. This article makes the theoretical connection between accuracy and imprecision in energy measurements with the x-ray Swank factor for a-Se, Si, CdZnTe, and HgI2-based detectors. For a detector that implements adaptive binning to sum all elements in which x-ray energy is deposited for a single interaction, energy imprecision is shown to depend on the Swank factor for a large element with x rays incident at the center. The response function for each converter material is determined using Monte Carlo methods and used to determine energy accuracy, Swank factor, and relative energy imprecision in photon-energy measurements. For each material, at energies below the respective K edges, accuracy is close to unity and imprecision is only a few percent. Above the K-edge energies, characteristic emission results in a drop in accuracy and precision that depends on escape probability. In Si, and to some extent a-Se, Compton-scatter escape also degrades energy precision with increasing energy. The influence of converter thickness on energy accuracy and imprecision is modest for low-Z materials but becomes important when using high-Z materials at energies greater than the K-edge energies. Accuracy and precision in energy measurements by EPC detectors are determined largely by the energy-dependent x-ray Swank factor. Modest decreases in the Swank factor (5%-15%) result in large increases in relative imprecision (30%-40%).

An analytical model of the effects of pulse pileup on the energy spectrum recorded by energy resolved photon counting x‐ray detectors

Recently, novel CdTe photon counting x-ray detectors (PCXDs) with energy discrimination capabilities have been developed. When such detectors are operated under a high x-ray flux, however, coincident pulses distort the recorded energy spectrum. These distortions are called pulse pileup effects. It is essential to compensate for these effects on the recorded energy spectrum in order to take full advantage of spectral information PCXDs provide. Such compensation can be achieved by incorporating a pileup model into the image reconstruction process for computed tomography, that is, as a part of the forward imaging process, and iteratively estimating either the imaged object or the line integrals using, e.g., a maximum likelihood approach. The aim of this study was to develop a new analytical pulse pileup model for both peak and tail pileup effects for nonparalyzable detectors. The model takes into account the following factors: The bipolar shape of the pulse, the distribution function of time intervals between random events, and the input probability density function of photon energies. The authors used Monte Carlo simulations to evaluate the model. The recorded spectra estimated by the model were in an excellent agreement with those obtained by Monte Carlo simulations for various levels of pulse pileup effects. The coefficients of variation (i.e., the root mean square difference divided by the mean of measurements) were 5.3%-10.0% for deadtime losses of 1%-50% with a polychromatic incident x-ray spectrum. The proposed pulse pileup model can predict recorded spectrum with relatively good accuracy.

SU‐FF‐I‐139: Low Dose Breast CT with Photon Counting Detectors: A Phantom Study

Purpose: To investigate image quality improvement of breast computed tomography (CT) using a photon counting detector as compared to an energy integrating flat panel detector. Method and Materials: A cone‐beam CT system was built that utilized a CsI‐based flat panel detector. The system consisted of a standard tungsten target x‐ray tube and a CsI indirect flat panel detector (Paxscan 4030CB) mounted on an optical bench. The photon counting CT system was built with the same setup, but with the flat panel detector replaced by a row of cadmium. (CZT) detector (eV2500, eV Products). The CZT detector consisted of 64 pixels with a pitch of 0.8 mm and five energy bins for spectral separation. A Lucite phantom (2.5 cm in diameter) was constructed with iodine and calcium contrast materials. Tomographic data were acquired with both systems and the contrast‐to‐noise ratio was compared. The data from CZT was energy weighted before analysis. Results: Image quality improved when comparing the CZT energy weighted images to flat panel images. The CNR improvements were 24% and 19% for calcium and iodine, respectively. Conclusions: Phantom results showed significant improvement in CNR for breast CT using an energy resolving photon counting detector as compared with an energy integrating flat panel detector.