Discharge Energy Research Articles

Analysis of hydrodynamic behavior in response to diverse pile arrangements adjacent to an impermeable dike

ABSTRACT Intense energy flow near the dike head significantly influences the development of the dike field zone (DFZ), momentum exchange zone (MEZ), and mainstream zone (MSZ), leading to potential partial or full failure of the dike in the MEZ. To address this, laboratory experiments were conducted to observe flow changes and rate of energy reduction around a single impermeable dike, with alterations made to the pile group length (HL: half-length = 11.5 cm and FL: full length = 23 cm), location (U: upstream, D: downstream), and shape (C: Circular, DV: Delta Van, ST: Streamlined tapered, APF: Angled Plate footing). Modifications in the MEZ flow structure were studied to mitigate concerns about intense energy vortices and dike head flows. These piles helped to assess factors like flow deflection, backwater rise, energy reduction rate, velocity fluctuations, and discharge distribution percentages across the zones. The data revealed that when the pile group length was increased from HL to FL, there was an inverse effect on depth-averaged velocity, MEZ discharge distribution percentage, and flow deflection toward the DFZ. Conversely, there was a direct influence on the rise in backwaters, rate of energy reduction, and discharge distribution percentages in the DFZ. The U-FL-APF pile dike showcased optimal results, displaying a reduction in maximum energy by 52% and streamwise velocity by 96%, while also increasing the backwater rise and discharge distribution by 22% and of only 5% in the MEZ, respectively, compared to a single impermeable dike. During flood events, these suggested measures can mitigate the intensified swirls formed in the DFZ, protect the dike head from direct momentum exchanges in the MEZ, and enhance flow deflection into the MSZ.

Enhancing Vanadium Redox Flow Battery Performance with ZIF-67-Derived Cobalt-Based Electrode Materials

Vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFBs) have emerged as a promising energy storage solution for stabilizing power grids integrated with renewable energy sources. In this study, we synthesized and evaluated a series of zeolitic imidazolate framework-67 (ZIF-67) derivatives as electrode materials for VRFBs, aiming to enhance electrochemical performance. Four materials—Co/NC-700, Co/NC-800, Co3O4-350, and Co3O4-450—were prepared through thermal decomposition under different conditions and coated onto graphite felt (GF) electrodes. X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analyses confirmed the structural integrity and distribution of the active materials. Electrochemical evaluations revealed that electrodes with ZIF-67-derived coatings exhibited significantly lower charge transfer resistance (Rct) and higher energy efficiency (EE) compared to uncoated GF electrodes. Co/NC-800//GF delivered the highest energy efficiency and discharge capacity among the tested configurations, maintaining stable performance over 100 charge–discharge cycles. These results indicate that Co/NC-800 holds great potential for use in VRFBs due to its superior electrochemical activity, stability, and scalability.

To investigate the effect of discharge energy and addition of nano-powder on processing of micro slots using EDM assisted µ-milling operation

ABSTRACT Micro-electric Discharge-Milling (µ-ED-M) is a non-contact process that uses an electrical spark to remove the material from a submerged workpiece with an electrode in a dielectric. The present paper focuses on optimizing process energizing (Capacitor, Voltage) and process stabilizing (Tool Travel Speed, Nano-Powder) parameters for controlling the size and surface characteristics of micro-crater. The present work focuses on the effect of nano-powder concerning dimensional aspects and surface characteristics at high and low capacitance levels. A µ-slot has been generated on the copper material by a tungsten carbide electrode. The experimentation is performed with two capacitor levels and three voltage and tool travel speed levels using full factorial design technique using with and without mixing of nano-powder in dielectric. The desirability functional multi-objective optimization approach is used to analyze the MRR, TWR, Width, and Depth. Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), non-contact optical profilometer, and x-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques are used to analyze the surface morphology of machined surfaces. The ANOVA is used to optimize the results; at low discharge energy, tool travel speed contributes 41% and promotes a higher thickness of recast layer 12.7 µm, whereas high discharge energy and nano-powder concentration contribute approx.—36% with 8.56 µm of recast layer.

Effect of thermal shock on energy density of biaxially oriented polypropylene films for pulsed power capacitors

In this paper, thermal shock experiments are performed on the biaxially oriented polypropylene (BOPP) films, and the changes in dielectric and energy storage properties before and after the experiments are explored. The experimental results show that the films have reduced comprehensive performance with the thermal shock time and frequency increasing. After the thermal shock, both the permittivity and the dielectric loss increase slightly. And, the direct current (DC) conductivity has risen by 73.6%–714.2%. The lowest DC breakdown strength of film is 604.4 kV mm−1, showing a 13.5% reduction compared to that of pristine film. In addition, energy storage performance has also deteriorated. The maximum discharge energy density decreased from 4.62 J cm−3 of pristine film to 3.26 J cm−3 of treated film. There is a decrease in charge and discharge efficiency under the same electric field. The metallization layer of the film receives less influence; the capacitance is reduced by only 0.37%. The causes and mechanisms of performance changes are analyzed and discussed. The disruption of molecular chains during thermal shock is the most important factor leading to the degradation of films. This paper provides a powerful perspective and reference for studying the performance degradation and failure of polymer dielectrics under extreme operating conditions.

Fatigue Failure of Alloy Grade P22 Hot Reheat Auxiliary Steam Pipe

A leak was discovered in the hot reheat auxiliary pipe. The pipe was found to have a bulging condition and a crack at the base metal area. A circumferential crack was discovered near a repair weld spot on the external surface. The failure was investigated using material characterization techniques, including in-situ replication, glow discharge spectroscopy (GDS), microhardness analysis, optical microscopy, and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX). Based on microstructure analysis, numerous cracks were observed to have initiated at the internal surfaces of the pipe. Most of the cracks were found on the parent metal. The cluster of cracks concentrates on the plane of 0⁰ - 180⁰. Microstructure analysis shows that the cracks are multiple, parallel, mainly transgranular, oxide-filled with branching crack tips. It is thought that the cracking is associated with fatigue and, most likely, high cyclic stress is the key contributory factor. The steam oxide cracked gradually as a result of the cyclic stress. As more metal surface was exposed, new oxide formed, causing cracks to propagate into the metal as this process was repeated due to cyclic loading.

Investigation of the Discharge Voltage in Electric Vehicle Motor Bearings

As the automotive industry undergoes a significant transition towards electric vehicles (EV), the matter of electric current discharge in motor bearings has emerged as a focal point of concern. This issue has gathered increased attention due to its potential to inflict damage upon bearing surfaces. The extent of damage inflicted by the discharges is intricately tied to the discharge energy, a factor directly influenced by both bearing capacitance and discharge voltage. In pursuit of a deeper understanding of discharge voltage dynamics within EV motor bearings, electric discharge tests were conducted using in-house modified single ball-on-disc contact and full bearing test equipment. Our test results at the single ball-on-disc contact show that discharge voltage adheres to a probabilistic distribution. Moreover, parallel investigations at the bearing level have yielded corroborative findings, reinforcing conclusions drawn from the single contact tests. These collective efforts contribute to a comprehensive understanding of electric discharge phenomena in motor bearings, essential for developing effective mitigation strategies and advancing the reliability of EV propulsion systems.

Analysis of Energy Transfer in the Ignition System for High-Speed Combustion Engines

In order to produce reliable and reproducible ignition of lean fuel–air mixtures and highly stratified mixtures, it is necessary to ensure a high concentration of spark discharge energy and to provide a strong energy impulse for the triggering of chain processes of chemical decomposition of fuel molecules. For this reason, studies have been undertaken on the flow of electrical energy from the ignition system to the spark plug and on the formation of an electric discharge arc with a high concentration of thermal energy. The experimental results were obtained using an ignition coil energy test stand and a constant volume chamber with high-speed spark discharge recording capability. It was confirmed that increasing the charging time of the ignition coil from 0.5 ms to 5.0 ms increases the energy delivered to the coil from 9.5 mJ to 330 mJ. In the same range, the energy generated by the coil was recorded to range from 4.2 mJ to 70 mJ. The coil’s efficiency was found to decrease with increasing charging time from 45% up to 20.5%. Further energy losses were presented when the spark discharge energy was analyzed. In the paper, the results of investigations concerning electric discharge arc development have been presented, illustrated by a few exemplary photos, and discussed. The mathematical interpretation of the electrical energy flux in the ignition system resulting from the energy of the discharge arc has been conducted and illustrated by some functional independences and relationships.

Pulse dynamic regulation of electrochemical discharge milling by utilizing the slotted tube electrode

Electrochemical discharge machining (ECDM) has a splendid application potential for machining difficult-to-cut materials. It is a challenge to limit and control the discharge energy and area of DC power supply in ECDM. Owing to the uncertainty and randomness of the position and range of the single discharge, the unpredictable discharges deteriorate the surface quality of the workpiece, alter the size of the inter-electrode gap (IEG), and influence the distribution of the multi-physical fields. Therefore, to regulate the machining state and energy, the ideology of pulse dynamic machining is introduced, and a method of pulse dynamic ECDM utilizing the slotted electrodes is proposed. With the tool electrode rotating, the tube electrode transforms the pure electrochemical machining (pure-ECM) stage and the electrochemical discharge machining (ECDM) stage periodically through the slots at the bottom of it. The machining current waveform, surface roughness and sidewall taper of machined grooves, material removal rate (MRR), and relative tool wear rate (RTWR) are investigated. Additionally, the discharge types of the ECDM are explicitly defined and statistically classified. The experimental results show that the pulse dynamic regulation of hybrid machining using the slotted electrodes is beneficial to regularize the machining current waveform and optimize the machining quality.

The effect of low-temperature starting on the thermal safety of lithium-ion batteries

With the widespread application of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) in the field of energy equipment, their probability of starting or operating in low-temperature environments is also increasing. However, there is currently a lack of research on the changes in thermal safety of batteries after use in corresponding environments. In this work, the thermal safety performance, degradation mechanisms and evaluation method of LIBs at low-temperature start-up conditions are studied. The results show that starting at low temperature leads to the decrease of cell capacity. Electrochemical characterization and cell disassembly analysis indicate that the loss of active lithium ions is mainly caused by the evolution of lithium and the growth of solid electrolyte interface films. In addition, the low-temperature startup results in the decrease of thermal runaway (TR) onset temperature and the advance of TR time. In order to quantitatively evaluate the safety state of the LIBs, an evaluation model based on Informer algorithm is established. The model extracts the discharge capacity, discharge energy and dV/dQ as aging characteristic parameters, and extracts TR temperature as thermal safety characteristic parameters. The data set is processed by cubic spline interpolation. After training and verification, the accuracy of the model reaches 80 %.

Mn vacancy engineering design of Fe/Mn based cathodes for breaking the spell between “sodium limiting” in air-stabilization and “sodium promoting” on kinetics

Fe/Mn-based cathode is considered a viable choice for sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) because of its affordability and high theoretical capacity. Nonetheless, bad actually comprehensive performance still impede its commercial application. In this work, based on the systematic study of P2-Na2/3Fe1/2Mn1/2O2 cathode materials with fewer Mn vacancies (NFM-Q), we realized a superior rate, cycling performance, air stability and more importantly unraveled the operation mechanism. Specifically, dual function of fewer Mn vacancies were explicitly clarified, which included the effect of shrinking sodium layers and the sodium-ion diffusion promoting effect, as confirmed by combining XRD, XANES, XAFS, EIS and GITT. So Mn vacancy engineering had the potential to break the contradiction between “sodium limiting” based on air-stabilization mechanism and “sodium promoting” based on kinetics. This has rarely been found before. And a series of characterizations strongly declared rapidly cooling rate could effectively regulated the creation of Mn vacancies. As a result, NFM-Q cathode not only delivered outstanding discharge capacity (192.7 mAh/g), cycling stability (123.8 mAh/g, 65 %, after 50 cycles) and energy density (574.0 Wh Kg−1), but also possessed splendid air stability (185.8 mA h/g, 61.8 % after 50 cycles and immersion). Moreover, ex-situ XRD and XAS further expounded structural evolution and charge compensation mechanism of NFM-Q cathode, confirming its superior performance. This work might offer fresh understanding about the roles of Mn vacancy engineering, which could open up new possibilities on the material design and the property improvement of Fe/Mn-based cathodes.

Contemporary Management and Prognostic Factors of Arrhythmia Recurrence in Patients with High-Energy Discharge of Cardiac Implantable Electronic Devices.

Background and Objectives: Understanding the underlying causes of implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD) discharges is vital for effective management. This study aimed to evaluate the characteristics of patients admitted following ICD discharge, focusing on myocardial ischemia as a potential exacerbating factor and potential risk factors for VT recurrence. Materials and Methods: This retrospective, single-center study included 81 patients with high energy discharge from cardiac implantable electronic device admitted urgently to the cardiology department from 2015 to 2022. The exclusion criterion was ST-segment elevation acute coronary syndrome. Data were collected anonymously from electronic medical records. Patients were categorized based on coronary angiography, percutaneous angioplasty, presence of significant stenosis, recurrent ventricular tachycardia (VT), and catheter ablation. Clinical variables, including demographic data, echocardiographic parameters, and pharmacotherapy, were analyzed. The primary endpoint was the recurrence of VT during in-hospital stay. Results: Among 81 patients, predominantly male (86.4%), with a mean age of 63.6 years, 55 (67.9%) had coronary artery disease (CAD) as the primary etiology for ICD implantation. Coronary angiography was performed in 34 patients (42.0%) and showed significant stenosis (>50%) in 18 (41.8%) patients, while 8 (26.0%) individuals underwent percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI). Recurrent VT occurred in 21 subjects (26.3%), while ventricular catheter ablation was performed in 36 patients (44.0%). Referral for urgent coronary angiography was associated with presence of diabetes (p = 0.028) and hyperlipidemia (p = 0.022). Logistic regression analysis confirmed NYHA symptomatic class (OR 4.63, p = 0.04) and LVH (OR 10.59, p = 0.049) were independently associated with relapse of VT. CAD patients underwent catheter ablation more frequently (p = 0.001) than those with dilated cardiomyopathy. Conclusions: The study showed a low referral rate for coronary angiography among patients with ICD discharge. Presence of LVH and preexisting symptomatic class influence arrhythmia recurrence. Understanding these associations can guide personalized management strategies for ICD recipients.

Combinatorial Optimization of Grain Size and Domain Morphology Boosts the Energy Storage Performance in (Bi0.5Na0.5)TiO3-Based Dielectric Ceramics.

Lead-free dielectric ceramics exhibiting excellent energy storage capacity, long service life, and good safety have been considered to have immense prospects in next-generation pulsed power capacitors. However, it is still challenging to simultaneously achieve large recoverable energy density (Wrec), high efficiency (η), and excellent charge-discharge performance. Herein, we fabricated lead-free (1 - x)(Bi0.5Na0.5)TiO3-x(Sr0.7Bi0.1La0.1)TiO3 ((1 - x)BNT-xSBLT) dielectric ceramics, and a good balance between Wrec ∼ 4.15 J/cm3 and η ∼ 93.89% under 333 kV/cm, as well as superior charge-discharge properties (power density PD ∼ 185.42 MW/cm3, discharge energy density Wd ∼ 2.2 J/cm3, and discharge time t0.9 ∼ 53.8 ns under 250 kV/cm), was achieved in 0.6BNT-0.4SBLT ceramics. The good energy storage performance can be attributed to the synergistic contributions of significantly enhanced Eb caused by grain refinement and the large ΔP values induced by polar nanoregions (PNRs) under a high external electric field. Moreover, the 0.6BNT-0.4SBLT ceramics also present excellent temperature stability of energy storage properties (the variations of Wrec and η less than 0.45% and 0.14%, respectively) over a temperature range of 25-185 °C. These figures of merit make 0.6BNT-0.4SBLT ceramics the most promising candidate for energy storage capacitors in advanced pulse power systems.

Optimized energy storage performances via high-entropy design in KNN-based relaxor ferroelectric ceramics

Dielectric capacitors play an irreplaceable role in complex and integrated electronic systems. However, attaining ultrahigh recoverable energy storage density (Wrec) alongside energy storage efficiency (η) poses a formidable challenge, impeding the advance towards the miniaturization and integration of cutting-edge energy storage devices. In this work, a high-entropy strategy with a viscous polymer process is adopted, bringing about ultrafine grains and polar nanoregions (PNRs) accompanied by enhanced electrical homogeneity and polarization relaxation characteristics. As a result, an ultrahigh Wrec ∼ 7.51 J/cm3 is achieved in a high-entropy KNN-based energy storage ceramic with a high η ∼ 88.4% at 750 kV/cm. Moreover, the ceramic capacitor exhibits a colossal power density reaching approximately 420 MW/cm3 and a discharge energy density of approximately 4.85 J/cm3 at 160 ℃. Impressively, it maintains low variation rates of less than 4% across a broad temperature range from 20 ℃ to 160 ℃. The new approach opens avenues for the design and development of superior dielectric materials used in next-generation high-power pulse devices.

Insights into pressure-driven depolarization in PLZST-based antiferroelectric ceramics

Materials showing field-driven antiferroelectric to ferroelectric transformation are interesting for the design of pyroelectric, high strain actuator and high-power dielectric energy storage and discharge devices. The stability of the antiferroelectric and ferroelectric states at room temperature can be chemically tuned by La and Ti co-modification of the antiferroelectric system Pb(Zr1-ySny)O3. Here, we have chosen a composition Pb0.982La0.012(Zr0.60Sn0.30Ti0.10)O3 (PLZST) at the threshold of the antiferroelectric-ferroelectric instability at room temperature and investigated the effect of electric field, temperature and pressure on the stability of the structural-polar states. We show that electric poling transforms irreversibly the antiferroelectric state into a ferroelectric state. Application of hydrostatic pressure ∼100 MPa on the field-stabilized ferroelectric phase, however, restores the antiferroelectric state and depolarizes the system.

Effect of energy on the interface morphologies and tensile-shear properties of the electromagnetic pulse welding T2/SS304 joints

This investigation focused on the effect that electromagnetic pulse welding (EMPW) of copper (T2) and stainless steel (SS304) dissimilar materials with various discharge energies, which is interfacial morphology and tensile-shear properties of the joints. The results showed that the interface of T2/SS304 dissimilar material joints treated with EMPW exhibits a typical waveform morphology. The maximum wave peak distance reaches 36 μm (39 kJ), and the distance between peak and trough reaches 6 μm (37 kJ, 39 kJ). The tensile-shear properties of the joints were better than those of the base material, with the fracture mode changing from interfacial fracture (35 kJ) to base mental fracture (37 kJ, 39 kJ), and the maximum tensile-shear of the joints was 11.1 kN (39 kJ). The wave spacing after fracture was extended up to 3 μm.

Multi-objective optimal scheduling of electricity consumption in smart building based on resident classification

By the end of 2021, the urbanization rate of China had reached 64.72%. Increasing urbanization rates have led to an 80 percent share of carbon emissions in urban areas. Therefore, a load optimal scheduling model of smart buildings is proposed in this paper, which takes into account the cost of carbon emissions. The model aims to minimize the electric cost for building residents and maximize the utilization of distributed energy. The research focuses on the load optimal scheduling for two types of residents, i.e., the working residents and the retired ones, based on their electricity usage patterns and habits. To address the challenges of uneven load distribution, nonlinear behavior, and uncertainties introduced by electric vehicles and photovoltaic energy, the multi-objective beluga whale optimization algorithm with hybrid reverse learning competitive strategies (RCMBWO) is introduced. It utilizes the energy storage and discharge capabilities of electric vehicles to mitigate the uncertainties of photovoltaic energy generation. The simulation results show that load optimal scheduling for both types of residents can lead to significant cost savings for a smart building with 100 households, approximately 29,554 RMB per year. Furthermore, the optimized results can guide the determination of the appropriate size for the photovoltaic energy storage system, reducing energy waste resulting from insufficient energy consumption capability of smart buildings. The research on targeted load optimal scheduling for classified residents presents a viable solution for enhancing the cost-effectiveness and environmental benefits of smart buildings.

Empowering energy management in smart buildings: A comprehensive study on distributed energy storage systems for Sustainable consumption

The increment of photovoltaic generation in smart buildings and energy communities makes the use of energy storage systems desired to increase the self-consumption efficiency. This paper proposes and explores a model for energy storage systems management that considers local renewable generation, local demand, and retailer energy prices. The proposed model was tested at both energy community-level and the smart building level, demonstrating their capabilities of deployment. To validate the proposed model, a case study with two scenarios, including a 251 members energy community, was executed. The results demonstrate significant cost reductions for community members when adopting energy storage systems and the proposed management model. Regarding the smart building application four scenarios were tested, it is demonstrated that the demand for energy from the retailer could be set to zero during periods of time to enable its participation in demand response events. Overall, this paper contributes to the state-of-the-art by identifying and evaluating a model that manages the energy storage systems charge and discharge operation to actively reduce energy costs at the community-level (19.26%) and building level (11.75%) and to demonstrate that part of the loads can be optimized to understand if the building can be energy net-zero.

Cermet coatings obtained by electric spark alloying to increase service life of dental instruments

The article presents the results of our study of protective cermet coatings obtained by the method of electric spark alloying on a dental instrument (excavator) using SHS (self-propagating high-temperature synthesis) electrodes based on TiC-NiCr. The influence of discharge energy during electric spark alloying on the roughness, thickness, and proportion of the TiC carbide phase in the cermet coating has been established. It has been shown that during electric spark alloying, the material of the used SHS electrode and the surface of the substrate melt, their convective mixing occurs, and during crystallization, coatings are formed that consist of a strengthening phase TiC and iron-based solid solutions: Fe9.64Ti0.36, F1.88C0.12, and Cr-Ni-Fe-C. It has been found that the maximum size of TiC grains is formed on the surface of the cermet coating, and as they approach the substrate, their size decreases to less than 10 nm. It has been found that the microhardness of the surface of the resulting cermet coatings increased to 6.2 times compared to the microhardness of the original metal base, which was 2 GPa. The results of scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive analysis of the surface of samples with and without cermet coating before and after corrosion tests are presented. The influence of disinfectants (2 and 100 % Trilox, Wendelin, MegaDes-ortho) on the corrosion resistance of samples with and without developed protective cermet coatings at room and elevated temperatures up to 50 °C and their exposure for 120 h has been established.

Superior energy storage performance in Bi0.5Na0.5TiO3 based ceramics via synergistic design of multi-size domain construction and multiple phase structures

Lead-free dielectric ceramics, as the crucial materials for the development of eco-friendly high pulse power devices, have faced limitations in achieving energy storage performance comparable to lead-based counterparts. A novel strategy was adopted to enhance the energy storage capability of Bi0.5Na0.5TiO3 based ceramics by constructing multiple phase structures and multi-size domain. An ultrahigh energy storage density of 8.0 J·cm−3 and a large efficiency of 88.9 % were achieved. The superior energy storage properties can be attributed to the synergistic effects of multiple phase structures and multi-size domain construction resulted from a significant polarization intensity difference upon Sr(Zr0.2Ti0.8)O3 doping. Even more surprising, the 0.6Bi0.5Na0.5TiO3-0.4Sr(Zr0.2Ti0.8)O3 ceramic exhibited excellent aging resistance, with variation in discharge energy density (Wd) < ±7% over a temperature range from 20 to 150°C, variations in recoverable energy density (Wrec) < ±8.3 %, and efficiency (η) < ±5.6 % over a frequency range from 1 to 50 Hz and across 105 cycles. The finding in this work not only provides an effective candidate for high power pulse capacitors, but also provides ideas for the study of high energy storage performance of BNT and the related lead-free ceramics.

Coupled heat transfer and chemical kinetics in a calcium oxide/hydroxide fixed bed thermochemical energy storage reactor

Among energy storage technologies, thermochemical heat storage despite its unique advantages, remains at a nascent state due to varied technical challenges. One of the key unknowns in the otherwise well-studied calcium oxide/hydroxide chemistry, is a lack of understanding of the possible output power profiles. Here, we investigate the theoretical power output from a fixed-bed, modular, honeycomb-geometry thermochemical energy storage (TCS) reactor based on a calcium oxide/hydroxide, using finite element modeling of heat transfer coupled with reaction kinetics. We calculate the extent of reaction and temperature profiles in a lattice of honeycomb cells that make up the bed, while varying heat transfer related parameters. We find that the size of the unit cell can limit energy discharge, for example, increasing the time to completion for the reaction to ∼7 hours as the cell size increases to 6 cm, even though the reaction kinetics is fast at ∼2 mins. The time constant of the transient power profile increases by a factor of ∼4 as the cell size increases by a factor of ∼3, when considering cells in the nominal size range 2–6 cm. Besides cell size, we investigate how the power profile is affected by the following parameters: the thermal conductivity of the bed, the initial temperature, the material of the cell wall and the heat transfer coefficient of external flows. In particular, we identify the combination of parameters that can vary the power profile on demand to operate the same reactor as either a thermal capacitor or alternately, a thermal battery. This work informs future design possibilities with oxide-hydroxide, solid–gas reaction TCS and provides insight into critical heat transfer parameters.