Account Energy Research Articles

Harnessing the Sun to Power the Canal Road Treatment Plant at New Jersey American Water

To better control the escalating cost of electric power generationat its Canal Road Treatment Plant, New Jersey American Water (NJAW)decided to implement an environmentally friendly solution. The instal-lation of a 500 kW dc solar photovoltaic energy plant allows NJAW toachieve strong financial results, while providing clean, reliable, and costsaving energy to the bene fit of our customers and stakeholders.All of the power generated from this dual array ground-mountedsystem is utilized on site without exporting to the electrical grid. About15% of the peak usage of the treatment plant is now supplemented bythe system, reducing the amount of electricity that must be purchasedfrom outside energy suppliers. Additionally, energy is produced at timesof peak loading on the grid, decreasing stress on the grid, while creatingthe most valuable energy in a time-of-day rate environment.In addition to energy savings, the system produces a new yearlyrevenue stream for the company via the sale of tradable solar-specificrenewable energy credits that electric marketers are mandated to acquireto meet the NJ Renewable Energy Portfolio Standard.The installation of the system has had a very positive public rela-tions bene fit by demonstrating NJAW’s commitment to preserving theenvironment. This project is the largest ground-mounted system on theeast coast and demonstrates a green energy commitment that is a high priority for NJ and its governor’s environmental agenda.This article reports on the construction of this energy plant byNJAW and its consultant Dome-Tech Solar from conception to comple-tion. It discusses the challenges of obtaining NJ Clean Energy rebates,obtaining planning board approval and the alterations and changes tothe system required during the design and construction process. Mostimportantly the paper will discuss the economic, environmental andsocial bene fits that any company can derive from the implementationof a similar system

SSL-A Big Step out of the Poverty Trap for the BOP!

In this paper we discuss the real cost of fuel based lighting in the developing world and in comparison the incredible wealth creating prospects associated with safe, healthy and affordable solid state lighting (SSL), based on renewable energy (RE) and Micro Credit (MC). SSL technology and a number of SSL projects promoted by the Light Up The World Foundation (LUTW) are presented. A multi stake holder approach for the accelerated adoption of SSL in the developing world is proposed in order that those at the Base of the Pyramid (BOP) can get onto the first rung of the ladder of economic progress. The potential contributions of SSL to the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and the fundamental importance of MC are discussed in detail. The wholesale adoption of SSL by the BOP would be an added ‘incentive’ for the Top and Middle of the Pyramid to also adopt SSL wholesale. A Bottom Up plus a Top Down adoption of SSL can help combat climate change. LUTW promotes SSL systems for the benefit of the world’s poor, and its strategy is in line with the Jeffrey Sachs plan for the developed world to help the developing world pull itself up by its own bootstraps.

Decision Support Tools for Green Building: Facilitating Selection Among New Adopters on Public Sector Projects

Green building is becoming more mainstream in the public sector, especially in federal agencies such as the U.S. Department of Defense, in a large part due to federal policies requiring more sustainable outcomes in the design and construction of public sector projects. These policies challenge contracted design professionals by adding new demands to a process already constrained by limited budgets, multiple objectives, and short time frames. The purpose of this research is twofold: (a) to inventory decision support tools available to aid the green design process, and (b) to investigate approaches for organizing these tools to facilitate tool selection and adoption by designers new to green building. The research approach is based on principles of innovation adoption theory, specifically the constructs of relative advantage and trialability of innovations. The 275 design-related tools examined here address the spectrum of green building concepts and represent a range of applicability to different design tasks. The findings of this research indicate that while considerable investment has been made in developing freely available web-based tools to support design, a relatively small number of those tools are immediately applicable to the task of making Leadership in Energy and Environment Design (LEED) credit determinations for specific projects. The two characteristics of innovations explored in this research provide a basis for explaining some of the anecdotal observations of tools employed in practice, suggesting a need for further research to confirm and extend the findings.

Utility scale wind turbines on a grid-connected island: A feasibility study

This paper analyzes the technical and economic feasibility of installing utility-scale wind turbines on the Fox Islands, located 12 miles from the coast of Maine in the United States. Three locations on the islands, as well as a near offshore site, are analyzed in detail as potential sites for wind turbine installations. As discussed in this work, the logistic problems of transporting and installing wind turbines on the island require innovative solutions. These include locally available amphibious vessels, which can land turbine components at suitable shallow spots on the island, self-erecting towers, which allow use of a smaller crane for installation, and a special turbine foundation suitable for the local ground conditions. In the economic analysis, in addition to standard life-cycle parameters, renewable energy credits (REC) were also included. This work concludes that the installation of sub-megawatt wind turbines on the island is logistically possible and will lead to a reduction in the cost of electricity to the customers.

Impact of single versus multiple policy options on the economic feasibility of biogas energy production: Swine and dairy operations in Nova Scotia

The economic feasibility of on-farm biogas energy production was investigated for swine and dairy operations under Nova Scotia, Canada farming conditions, using net present value (NPV), internal rate of return (IRR), and payback period (PP) economic decision criteria. In addition, the effects of selected environmental and “green” energy policy schemes on co-generation of on-farm biogas energy production and other co-benefits from anaerobic digestion of livestock manure were investigated. Cost-efficiencies arising from economies of scale for on-farm anaerobic biogas production were found for swine farms, and less so for dairy production systems. Without incentive schemes, on-farm biogas energy production was not economically feasible across the farm size ranges studied, except for 600- and 800-sow operations. Among single policy schemes investigated, green energy credit policy schemes generated the highest financial returns, compared to cost-share and low-interest loan schemes. Combinations of multiple policies that included cost-share and green energy credit incentive schemes generated the most improvement in financial feasibility of on-farm biogas energy production, for both swine and dairy operations.

Harnessing the Sun Solar Panels Power Treatment Plant

To curtail its escalating power‐generation costs and follow through on its commitment to preserving the environment, New Jersey American Water (NJAW) installed a ground‐mounted dual‐array photovoltaic (PV) system at its Canal Road facility in late 2005. The solar PV system is the largest ground‐mounted system on the East Coast. About 15 percent of the plant's peak usage is supplemented by the system, reducing the amount of energy purchased from outside suppliers. The project is part of NJAW's aggressive energy‐reduction program to help reduce greenhouse gases, but the system is producing a new revenue stream through the sale of tradable solar‐specific Renewable Energy Credits that electric marketers must acquire to meet the New Jersey Renewable Energy Portfolio Standard. The article explains how the system converts sunlight into electricity, system design, construction details, operation and maintenance, and unexpected challenges that came up.

Full Chain Energy Analysis of Fuel Ethanol from Cassava in Thailand

An assessment of net energy and supply potentials was performed to evaluate cassava utilization for fuel ethanol in Thailand. Just recently, the Thai government approved the construction of 12 cassava ethanol plants with the total output of 3.4 million liters per day by the next 2 years (2007 and 2008). The cassava fuel ethanol (CFE) system involves three main segments: cassava cultivation including processing, ethanol conversion, and transportation. All materials, fuels, and human labor inputs to each segment were traced back to the primary energy expense level. Positive Net Energy Value and Net Renewable Energy Value, 8.80 MJ/L and 9.15 MJ/L, respectively, found for the CFE system in Thailand proved that it is energy efficient. Without coproduct energy credits, CFE in Thailand is even more efficient than CFE in China and corn ethanol in the United States. Regarding supply potentials, about 35% of the national cassava production would be used to feed approved CFE factories. A shift of cassava to ethanol fuel rather than its current use for chip/pellet products could be a probable solution.

A First-Law Thermodynamic Analysis of the Corn-Ethanol Cycle

This paper analyzes energy efficiency of the industrial corn-ethanol cycle. In particular, it critically evaluates earlier publications by DOE, USDA, and UC Berkeley Energy Resources Group. It is demonstrated that most of the current First Law net-energy models of the industrial corn-ethanol cycle are based on nonphysical assumptions and should be viewed with caution. In particular, these models do not (i) define the system boundaries, (ii) conserve mass, and (iii) conserve energy. The energy cost of producing and refining carbon fuels in real time, for example, corn and ethanol, is high relative to that of fossil fuels deposited and concentrated over geological time. Proper mass and energy balances of corn fields and ethanol refineries that account for the photosynthetic energy, part of the environment restoration work, and the coproduct energy have been formulated. These balances show that energetically production of ethanol from corn is 2‐4 times less favorable than production of gasoline from petroleum. From thermodynamics it also follows that ecological damage wrought by industrial biofuel production must be severe. With the DDGS coproduct energy credit, 3.9 gallons of ethanol displace on average the energy in 1 gallon of gasoline. Without the DDGS energy credit, this average number is 6.2 gallons of ethanol. Equivalent CO2 emissions from corn ethanol are some 50% higher than those from gasoline, and become 100% higher if methane emissions from cows fed with DDGS are accounted for. From the mass balance of soil it follows that ethanol coproducts should be returned to the fields.

Battle of the Biofuels

With skyrocketing petroleum prices and war in the oil-producing nations of the Middle East, biofuels are increasingly touted as desirable alternatives to petroleum. But can they really help free us from a petroleum economy? How do they compete with conventional fuels and each other on a cost basis? What are the environmental impacts? Researchers at the University of Minnesota have published a wide-ranging study that offers some answers. Currently, corn grain ethanol and soybean biodiesel are the two predominant alternative transportation fuels in the United States. Both can be used in conventional car and truck engines in blended form, and biodiesel can also be used in pure form (“B100”). Both are available at an increasing number of wholesale and retail locations across the nation. However, both require significant energy to produce, have their own environmental impacts, and could divert corn and soybeans from the nation’s food supply. Exactly what the energy balance and environmental impacts are and whether these fuels should be subsidized has been the subject of heated debate among scientists, policy makers, and the public. Researchers from the University of Minnesota and St. Olaf College led by ecology professor G. David Tilman hoped to inform this debate by conducting a comprehensive analysis of the full life cycles of these biofuels. According to the study, published in the 25 July 2006 issue of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, a viable alternative fuel must meet four criteria: show superior environmental benefits over the fossil fuel it displaces, be economically competitive with that fossil fuel, be producible in sufficient quantities to make a meaningful impact on energy demands, and provide a net energy gain over the energy sources used to produce it.

Recharging U.S. Energy Policy: Advocating for a National Renewable Portfolio Standard

ABSTRACT The global economy depends on uninterrupted electricity, but electricity generators pollute more than any other industry. The United States has regulated electricity almost from its beginning. Yet, despite repeated proposals, including the Energy Policy Act of 2005, Congress has yet to pass a renewable portfolio standard (RPS). Renewable portfolio standards require an electricity market to include a minimum percentage of electricity generated from renewable sources such as solar, wind, biomass, and geothermal sources. RPS policies use market-trading mechanisms to ensure that the required renewable energy is generated in the most efficient manner possible. Twenty-six U.S. states, Australia, and the European Union (E.U.) have implemented renewable portfolio standards or similar laws. These policies aim to reduce reliance on fossil fuels, decrease pollutants and greenhouse gas emissions, and foster technological innovation and economic growth. An analysis of these policies suggests how the United States might shape a national renewable policy. This paper intends to provide an overview of the electricity landscape in the United States and advocates for a national RPS. The paper explores the history and sources of electricity. It then explains renewable portfolio standards, with an in-depth look into renewable energy credit trading programs, a key policy mechanism that maximizes efficiency in meeting the increased demand for renewable energy generation. Finally, the paper explores lessons that the United States can learn from the renewable policies in Texas, Australia, and the E.U. I. INTRODUCTION II. SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY III. HISTORY OF ELECTRICITY AND ITS REGULATION IN THE U.S. IV. RENEWABLE PORTFOLIO STANDARDS: AN OVERVIEW A. Elements of a Renewable Portfolio Standard B. Renewable Energy Credits: A Key Market Trading Mechanism for RPSs C. The Lack of a National RPS V. RPSS AT THE STATE LEVEL AND TEXAS'S SUCCESS VI. WHAT THE U.S. CAN LEARN FROM AUSTRALIA AND THE EUROPEAN UNION A. Australia's Commitment to Renewable Energy B. The European Union's Harmonized Approach within its Member States VII. SENATE RPS PROPOSAL FOR THE ENERGY POLICY ACT OF 2005 A. Analysis of the RPS Amendment VIII. THE UNITED STATES NEEDS A NATIONAL RPS A. Why the U.S. Needs a National Renewable Policy B. Addressing Arguments against a National RPS C. Lessons from the States and Nations Who Have Implemented Renewable Policies D. Implementing These Lessons to Promote Renewable Energy Throughout the United States E. Weaknesses of a Federal Policy that Requires Each State to Implement an RPS F. One Direct National RPS Applicable to All Electricity Generators 1. The S[O.sub.2] Trading Program's Success Argues for a National RPS 2. Advantages of a National RPS 3. Potential Disadvantages of a National RPS 4. What Should the National RPS Contain? IX. CONCLUSION I. INTRODUCTION The global boom in renewable energy has been compared to the industrial revolution in its promise to transform the globe. (1) In the face of international and statewide policies to promote renewable energy, the United States has failed to adopt a renewable portfolio standard, a powerful policy tool that requires a certain amount of electricity to come from renewable sources. Considering how much Americans depend on electricity, it is time that the nation infuses the energy supply with a significant percentage of renewably-generated electricity. On a given day I wake up to an alarm clock, flip on the bathroom light, take a hot shower, heat water on the stove for oatmeal and herbal tea, listen to the radio, blow dry my hair, check my email, type notes on my laptop, text message with my cell phone, read the news online, microwave my lunch, listen to my iPod, work some more on my computer, cook dinner, and at the end of the day turn off the lights and set that alarm clock to start over again the next day. …

Renewable energy credit driven wind power growth for system reliability

Environmental concerns over electric power generation from conventional sources has led to widespread public support for renewable energy sources. Governments throughout the world have responded by providing various forms of financial incentives to promote power generation from renewable energy sources. The rapid growth of wind power since the last decade has primarily been driven by governmental subsidies. Long-term growth of wind power should, however, be driven by sustainable market mechanisms. A potential solution is to recognize monetary values to the environmental benefits from renewable energy sources, and to specify targets for their growth. The environmental benefits from wind sources can be leveraged to allow market competition of these sources with the less costly conventional generating sources. A probabilistic method to evaluate the impact of renewable energy credit and wind penetration level on the cost and adequacy of power generating systems is presented in this paper. The technique incorporates reliability and economic analyses and is applied to a published test system to illustrate the results and their influence on key system variables. The paper provides useful information to system planners and policy makers on wind energy application in electric power systems.

Determining Construction Debris Recycling Dumpster Densities

Abstract Solid waste generated by construction and demolition (C&D) projects account for a significant portion of solid waste generated and landfilled in the United States. The United States Green Building Council's (USGBC) Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED®) credit system encourages recycling of C&D debris. Data from a new construction project adhering to LEED® guidelines is used to investigate dumpster densities for construction debris. These are conversion factors from waste collection volumes to waste masses useful for verification of recycling credit goals, estimating waste management needs and optimizing waste management costs. The proper estimation of waste material dumpster density is important in order to combine sustainability with cost effectiveness. The field data was generated from a 9700 m2 (104,000 ft2) building under construction in Columbia, South Carolina with a precast concrete and brick veneer. The categories of waste investigated were general trash, masonry, wood, st...

Qualitative and Quantitative Evaluation of Energy Conversation Measures (ECM) Over Baseline as Given by ASHRAE

This paper presents the state of the art of an energy conservation approach which intended to provide techniques for calculating “whole—facility” savings and individual technology savings. With a goal of enhancing the overall energy performance of new commercial buildings, a detailed summary for the Measurement and Verification (M&V) approach is given. A case study is presented in detail. The study is conducted for the Chicago Center of Green Technology Building in Chicago, IL, referred to as CCGT. The main purpose of the study is to insure compliance with the requirements of LEED v1.0 and v2.0 Energy Credit 5: Measurement and Verification. We expect that the M&V study will provide the credit points necessary to achieve the owner's desired level of certification. In this paper only the analysis portion of the verification is presented.

Solar thermal power rating: Guidance for developing installation and energy credit programs for solar hot water systems

Solar Hot Water (SHW) systems that displace grid electricity are being considered for inclusion into installation and production credit programs. However, SHW systems normally have only energy production ratings, not power ratings, creating difficulties in including them into credit programs. Dave Menicucci, Sandia National Laboratories, USA describes the current issues surrounding this key area for solar thermal and presents a simple methodology that can estimate an effective power rating for SHW systems.

Energetic and economic feasibility associated with the production, processing, and conversion of beef tallow to a substitute diesel fuel

Abstract This study investigates the resource availability, energetic efficiency, and economic feasibility of converting edible and inedible beef tallow into biodiesel, a substitute diesel fuel. A resource assessment of edible and inedible beef tallow generation in the United States was performed for the period of 1997–2001. At that time, an average of more than 1.8 Mt (4 billion pounds) of edible and inedible tallow were generated each year in the 11 largest commercial cattle slaughtering states, which would equate to more than 2.08 GL (551 million gallons) of biodiesel (∼1% of the total US distillate consumption). Tallow is a by-product of our meat production and processing system, which complicates its energy and economic analysis. Although tallow is available in significant quantities at relatively low cost, it is not intentionally produced as a feedstock for biodiesel. Because of this uncertainty, energetic (energy ratio) and economic (production cost per gallon) feasibilities were estimated for three different system boundaries: (1) conversion of tallow by a continuous-flow transesterification process only with co-product (glycerin) credit, (2) rendering plant operations plus tallow transesterification, and (3) growth and maintenance of the beef animal from conception through rendering and transesterification. Energy ratios varied from 17.29 to 0.81 within the three system boundaries based on various assignments of the co-product energy credit for glycerin. Cost-sensitivity analyses were performed to determine the effect of feedstock cost and by-product (glycerin) credit on biodiesel cost. Feedstock cost had the greatest impact, while by-product credit effect was minimal. Cost of production ranged from $0.22 to $0.63 L −1 ($0.82–$2.38 gallon −1 ) produced.

Production of Liquid Hydrocarbons from Biomass

Research is being conducted worldwide to develop new technologies for the generation of liquid fuels from renewable resources. In this context, it was stated recently that “biomass is the only practical source of renewable liquid fuel”. This is of utmost importance for sustainable development. Currently, biodiesel is produced by transesterification of vegetable oils and ethanol by fermentation of glucose. Processes for the efficient gasification of biomass to produce CO and H2 (synthesis gas) are being developed. The synthesis gas can be further processed to produce methanol or liquid alkanes by Fischer– Tropsch synthesis using well-established industrial processes. In Agenda 21, Chapter 4.20, the United Nations call for “criteria and methodologies for the assessment of environmental impacts and resource requirements throughout the full lifecycle of products and processes”. A simple metric for biofuel production is the overall energy efficiency, that is, the heating value of the biofuel divided by the energy required to produce the biofuel from the respective biomass. Biodiesel production from rapeseed oil in Germany has an overall energy efficiency (not taking into account potential glycerol use) of about 1.9 and from soybean oil in the USA of about 3. The overall energy efficiency for the production of ethanol from corn in the USA equals about 1.1 without energy credits for coproducts. However, Pimentel pointed out quite recently: “In the U.S. ethanol system, considerably more energy, including high-grade fossil fuel, is required to produce ethanol than is available in the energy ethanol output. Specifically about 29% more energy is used to produce a gallon of ethanol than the energy in a gallon of ethanol.” Approximately 67% of the energy required for ethanol production is consumed in the fermentation/distillation process, of which over half is used to distill ethanol from water. A process without the energy-consuming distillation step would be most important. Huber et al. have recently demonstrated that it is possible to produce light alkanes by aqueous-phase reforming (APR) of biomass-derived oxygenates such as sorbitol, which can be obtained from glucose by hydrogenation. 11] The production of alkanes from aqueous carbohydrate solutions would be advantageous because of the easy separation of the alkanes from water. Accordingly, it was estimated that the overall energy efficiency for alkane production from corn would be increased to approximately 2.2, assuming that this process eliminates the energy-intensive distillation step but still requires all of the remaining energy input needed for the production of ethanol from corn. Much hydrogen is needed to reduce biomass-derived oxygenates to alkanes as shown in Equation (1). The main

Nationally Tradable Renewable Energy Credits for Renewable Portfolio Obligation in the Indian Power Sector

Fiscal policies have been extended for promotion of renewable energy in India. These included tax incentives and purchase of electricity generated through renewable energy sources. Enactment of the Electricity Act 2003 (the Act) has lent further support to renewable energy by stipulating purchase of a percentage of the power procurement by distribution utilities from renewable energy sources. The renewable portfolio obligation as well as tariff for procurement of such power has been specified by various State Electricity Regulatory Commissions (SERCs). This paper discusses regulatory developments for promotion of renewable energy in various Indian states. This paper identifies a number of regulatory issues related to renewable portfolio obligation in various states. The prevalent practice of fixing renewable portfolio standard with cost based feed-in-tariffs disregards economic efficiency. The paper proposes nationally tradable renewable energy credits for achieving the targets set by respective SERCs for renewable portfolio standards. This would help minimize cost of power procurement, and lead to efficient resource utilisation and provide incentive for investment in appropriate technologies. The paper highlights its advantages and implementation issues.

Simulating price patterns for tradable green certificates to promote electricity generation from wind

This article uses computer simulation to anticipate the price dynamics in a market for Tradable Green Certificates (TGCs). These markets have been used in Europe to promote generation of electricity from renewable resources like wind. Similar markets have been proposed in the United States of America (USA) where the certificates are called Renewable Energy Credits (RECs). The certificates are issued to the generating companies for each megawatt-hour of renewable electricity generation. The companies may sell the certificates in a market, and the revenues from certificate sales provide an extra incentive to invest in new generating capacity. Proponents argue that this market-based incentive can be designed to support government mandates for a growing fraction of electricity generation from renewable sources. In the USA, these mandates are set by the states and are known as Renewable Portfolio Standards (RPS). We simulate the price dynamics of a market designed to support an aggressive mandate for wind generation in the northwestern USA. The simulations show that the certificate price climbs rapidly to the cap in the early years after the market opens. Investors then react to these high prices with construction of new wind capacity. After a few years, wind generation meets, and then exceeds the requirement. We show that this pattern appears again and again when the simulations are repeated with wide variations in the estimates of behavioral parameters. We use the model to study the impact of different trading strategies by the wind companies and by the distribution companies. We also study the simulated market response if the USA adopts the carbon allowance market envisioned in The Climate Stewardship Act. The article concludes with recommendations for policy makers involved in TGC market design.

Two Studies that Investigate the Impact of Ceiling and Wall Reflectance Values on LEED Credits

This study is divided into two parts. The first study determines window size and size reductions for different wall and ceiling reflectance combinations that are needed in a classroom to achieve one leadership in energy and environmental design (LEED) daylight factor credit. The second study determines the power consumption of indirect luminaires with a target illuminance of 538 lux for different wall and ceiling reflectance combinations. LEED credits for the optimizing energy performance are determined. It is found that ceiling reflectance has a higher impact on light levels and energy performance than wall reflectance. A ceiling reflectance of 90% and wall reflectance of 75% allows a minimum window-to-wall ratio of 0.444 to achieve one LEED daylight factor credit. The same room decreases lighting power density for an indirect fluorescent lighting system by one-third below the maximum permissible lighting power density specified in American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers/Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (ASHRAE/IESNA) Standard 90.1-2001. If lighting constitutes 50% of the total ASHRAE/IESNA 90.1 load, 0.92 LEED credits for the optimization of energy performance can be obtained for new construction and 2.92 credits can be obtained for existing buildings.

Beyond free electricity: The costs of electric cooking in poor households and a market-friendly alternative

The South African government is introducing a poverty-reduction policy that will supply households with a monthly 50 kWh free basic electricity (FBE) subsidy. We show that FBE distorts the energy choices of poor households by encouraging them to cook with electricity, whereas alternatives such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) can deliver a similar cooking service at a much lower cost to society. An alternative energy scheme, such as providing households with clean energy credits equivalent in value to the FBE's cost, could deliver additional energy services worth at least 6% of total household welfare (and probably much more) at no additional public cost; those benefits are so large that they would cover the entire cost of LPG fuel needed to implement the scheme. The analysis is extremely sensitive to the coincidence of electric cooking with peak power demand on the South African grid and to assumptions regarding how South Africa will meet its looming shortfall in peak power capacity. One danger of FBE is that actual peak coincidence and the costs of supplying peak power could be much less favorable than we assume, and such uncertainties expose the South African power system to potentially very high costs of service.