Energy Analysis Research Articles

Comparison of Gas-sensitive response of three metal-doped GaNNT with Pb, Pd and Pt after adsorption of hazardous gases

In this paper, we comparatively analyze the gas-sensing ability of Pb, Pd and Pt metal-doped GaNNT (M-GaNNT) materials for the hazardous H2S, SO2, NH3 and Cl2 gases. The adsorption structure, adsorption energy (Eads), density of states (DOS), differential charge density and frontier molecular orbital of the M-GaNNT adsorbed hazardous gas have been studied based on the density functional theory (DFT) calculations. The results show that the energy gap of Pb-GaNNT performs the largest change with an increasing percentage change of 358 % after the Cl2 adsorption compared with that before the Cl2 adsorption, while the energy gap of Pt-GaNNT has the least change with an average value of 20.8 %. The doping of metal atoms can effectively improve the gas-sensitivity of M-GaNNT, and the gas-sensitivity follows the order of Pb-GaNNT> Pd-GaNNT> Pt-GaNNT. The potential applications of M-GaNNT in gas sensor and adsorbent are then predicted through the analysis of the adsorption energy, sensitive response (SR) and recovery time (τ). Pb-GaNNT performs the best Cl2 gas removal since the largest Eads (-5.883 eV), largest SR (4.4 × 1015) and largest τ (2.9 × 1087s) can be determined for Cl2 adsorption on Pb-GaNNT. Furthermore, Pb-GaNNT is a good NH3 gas sensor since the related τ is only 2.9 s at 498 K, and a small Eads (-1.232 eV) with large SR (9.7 × 105) can be determined as well. The research findings in this paper provide a new sensor material option for both the detection and the removal of harmful gases, and the systematically theoretical method can spread to other systems.

A dynamical system analysis of non-interacting cold dark matter and dark energy at perturbative level

This work deals with a cosmological model consisting of cold dark matter and dark energy without any interaction. The study has been done both at the background level and at the perturbative level for the homogeneous and isotropic FLRW spacetime. By suitable transformation of the variables, the cosmic evolution equations are converted into an autonomous system. A discrete dynamical system analysis has been employed for cosmic inferences.

Thermodynamic investigation and 4Es analysis of a VCR diesel engine using emulsified diesel with catalytic co-pyrolysis fuel derived from waste LDPE and Pongamia pinnata seeds

Global challenges for massive plastic waste disposal and regular decrement of conventional resources, converting plastic and biomass seeds waste into transportation-grade fuels through co-pyrolysis offer a better option for providing a promising solution. This investigation signifies a thermodynamic power cycle model, and 4Es (Energy, Exergy, Environmental, Economic) analysis of a direct injection unmodified diesel engine powered with various blends of test fuels derived from thermo-catalytic co-pyrolysis of low-density polyethylene (LDPE) wastes and Pongamia pinnata seeds at 500 °C with calcium oxide as catalyst, mixed with diesel. The fuel mixtures of pure diesel and pyrolytic test fuels are utilized for diesel engine testing with varying compression ratio. The synergistic effects of major parameters such as full engine load, varying compression ratios (16:1, 17:1, 18:1, and 19:1), and fuel blends (10, 20, 30, and 40 %) are considered for engine run. The Brake thermal energy was found to increase for the 20 % blend at 6.6 % (40 % load) in comparison to pure diesel. Also, the Brake specific fuel consumption was the least for the same blend, 0.31 kg/kWh at 18:1 CR. The smoke was also found to have lowered by 22 % for the 20 % blend in comparison to pure diesel. At a compression ratio of 18:1, the NOx formation also decreased by approximately 1.4 % in comparison to the pure diesel for almost all considered fuel blends. The fuel efficiency was observed to increase for the 20 % blend compared to pure diesel by 20 %. The cost and exergy destruction analysis also confirmed the D80PB20 to have the least and maximum values respectively for both parameters. The energy, exergy, emission, and economic (4Es) analysis confirmed the suitability of blended fuels for achieving improved engine performance and emissions. In addition, the economic and fuel sustainability analysis foster the techno-economic feasibility of the test fuels as compared to conventional diesel fuel.

Energy and exergy analysis of a novel solar-powered passive multi-stage osmosis desalination system for sustainable water production

Climate change and population growth constantly exacerbate global water scarcity, and seawater desalination technology is crucial to addressing this crisis. Conventional fossil-fuel desalination poses environmental and economic challenges, especially in remote, water-scarce regions. Renewable energy offers sustainable options for seawater desalination; however, most related technologies face challenges in flexible deployment. Among passive technologies, interfacial evaporation still confronts issues of salt accumulation impacting desalination efficiency. Therefore, this study investigates a novel solar-powered passive multi-stage osmosis device that emulates mangroves’ transpiration and natural osmosis processes. Harnessing solar energy, it employs hydrophilic nanoporous membranes for water movement and evaporation and an osmosis membrane for solute retention, aiming for efficient seawater desalination without external power and pressure. Energy and exergy analyses reveal key efficiency factors. Results reveal significant pressure gradients across the osmosis membrane as a challenge. Optimizing salinity and adjusting the area ratio of the nanoporous membrane to the osmosis membrane is vital for stability and performance. Moreover, potential increases in water production from 0.97 kg/m2/h to 3.53 kg/m2/h with a five-stage setup, though benefits diminish with additional stages due to heat/exergy losses. The exergy efficiency increases from 0.14 % for a five-stage device to 0.18 % for a ten-stage system. This study demonstrates the solar-powered passive multi-stage osmosis device’s dependence on solar flux and highlights the importance of optimizing the air gap thickness and insulation to boost efficiency.

Zeotropic mixture as a working fluid for cascade Rankine cycle-based reverse osmosis: Energy, exergy, and economic analysis

This study investigates the cascade Rankine cycle coupled with a reverse osmosis system for brackish groundwater treatment. The proposed system integrates a steam Rankine cycle (SRC) and an organic Rankine cycle (ORC) in a looped configuration, utilizing solar energy as a heat source. Each Rankine cycle is coupled with reverse osmosis (RO) to produce approximately 1 m3/h of permeate from each RO system. The system is investigated with working fluid combinations from R1233zd(E), R1234ze(Z), and R1336mzz(Z). Through comprehensive energy, exergy, and economic analyses, the system's performance is evaluated with zeotropic mixtures compared to pure R1233zd(E). The results demonstrate reliable performance with zeotropic mixtures, particularly R1233zd(E)/R1234ze(Z) with a mass composition of 0.6/0.4, demonstrating the maximum ORC expander work output of 1.15 kW. Parametric analysis reveals remarkable performance under different ORC system parameters. Variations in SRC condensation pressure show a trade-off performance between SRC and ORC turbine work output. Exergy analysis reveals an increase in exergy destruction by evaporation-based ORC components and a reduction in exergy destruction by condensation-based components, emphasizing improved irreversibility during the condensation process. Economic analysis indicates a marginal impact on the overall system cost, with the treated water cost ranging from 0.891 to 0.919 $/m3.

Coarse-Grained Molecular Dynamics Simulation of Ionomer-Mediated Carbon Cluster Bonding in Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell Catalyst Layers

This study examines the impact of ionomer to carbon mass ratio and the number of platinum particle clusters on the structural dynamics and organization of Pt-C-Nafion catalyst layers during the evaporation process. Using Coarse-Grained Molecular Dynamics (CGMD) simulations, we analyzed the center of mass position and ionomer coverage on Pt surface. The results show that a higher ionic polymer to carbon mass ratio (0.6) increases lateral mobility and short-range ordering along with the coverage of the Pt surface with ionomers, whereas increasing the number of Pt particle clusters (from 1 to 4 ) enhances lateral diffusion as well as leading to more difficult adsorption of ionomers. These findings highlight the importance of optimizing these parameters to obtain a homogeneous and stable catalyst layer, which is critical for fuel cell performance. Future work will include tuning the Pt/C mass ratio, hydrophilicity, and IC ratio in conjunction with energy and force analyses to further understand the effect of Nafion on Pt/C clusters.

Energy Analysis of Standardized Shipping Containers for Housing

Energy Analysis of Standardized Shipping Containers for Housing

Energy, Exergy, and flow fields analysis to enhance performance potential of a heat-driven thermoacoustic refrigerator

This study focuses on the design, optimization, and analysis of a heat-driven thermoacoustic refrigerator system to be used in a medium-size Combined Heat and Power (CHP) system, using its exhaust hot gases. Two configurations are investigated to maximize the total Coefficient of Performance (COPTot). Several approaches, including energy, sensitivity, displacement, and exergy analyses were conducted to understand the underlying physics, identify more effective performance configurations, and to find areas with the most potential for improvements. In an energy analysis, the engine and resonator efficiency, and the refrigerator COP (COPRF) were examined. The effects of engine and refrigerator stacks and their heat exchanger lengths and spacings on engine efficiency and the COPTot were investigated. Work and heat transfer dynamics are investigated across the system. Component interactions were explored through studying the acoustic intensity and pressure and velocity phase difference (θPU) distribution, and variations in velocity and pressure amplitudes in the engine and refrigerator stacks. Displacement analysis was introduced to assess the impact of stack length variations on refrigerator and engine displacement amplitudes. The analysis revealed the significant influence of the hot heat exchanger in the engine (HHXe) and the cold heat exchanger in the refrigerator (CHXRF) on design optimality. Sensitivity analysis identifies that the performance indices of the refrigerator are mainly sensitive to the stack length and spacing. Additionally, based on three new performance indices, an exergy analysis identified why and how the refrigerator heat exchanger closest to the engine performs better.

Solutions for a problem involving a ϕ-Laplacian-like operator via energy analysis, phase plane and shooting method

In this paper, we establish the existence of a countably infinite family of radially symmetric solutions that exhibit sign variations. These solutions are obtained for a Dirichlet boundary value problem incorporating a ϕ-Laplacian-like operator. Our main tools are the shooting method, phase plane and energy analysis, which demand extensive use of a Pozohaev-type identity.

Performances, energy, and exergy analysis on co-disposal of municipal solid waste and coal for co-generation of heat, power, and syngas from gasification-based route

Performances, energy, and exergy analysis on co-disposal of municipal solid waste and coal for co-generation of heat, power, and syngas from gasification-based route

From Bulk to Binding: Decoding the Entry of PET into Hydrolase Binding Pockets.

Plastic-degrading enzymes facilitate the biocatalytic recycling of poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET), a significant synthetic polymer, and substantial progress has been made in utilizing PET hydrolases for industrial applications. To fully exploit the potential of these enzymes, a deeper mechanistic understanding followed by targeted protein engineering is essential. Through advanced molecular dynamics simulations and free energy analysis methods, we elucidated the complete pathway from the initial binding of two PET hydrolases-the thermophilic leaf-branch compost cutinase (LCC) and polyester hydrolase 1 (PES-H1)-to an amorphous PET substrate, ultimately leading to a PET chain entering the active site in a hydrolyzable conformation. Our findings indicate that initial PET binding is nonspecific and driven by polar and hydrophobic interactions. We demonstrate that the subsequent entry of PET into the active site can occur via one of three key pathways, identifying barriers related to both PET-PET and PET-enzyme interactions, as well as specific residues highlighted through in silico and in vitro mutagenesis. These insights not only enhance our understanding of the mechanisms underlying PET degradation and facilitate the development of targeted enzyme enhancement strategies but also provide a novel framework applicable to enzyme studies across various disciplines.

An analytical approach for determining contact angle hysteresis on smooth, micropillared, and micropored homogeneous surfaces

HypothesisNumerous theoretical models have been developed from various research perspectives, including free energy analysis, force balance, and contact line dynamics, to elucidate the contact angle hysteresis on solid surfaces, especially for superhydrophobic surfaces. However, these models can produce inconsistent predictions, and few of them account for contact angle hysteresis on smooth and microstructured surfaces simultaneously. TheoryFormulas for advancing and receding free energy barriers of drops on different solid surfaces were derived, and then these formulas were simplified by incorporating the geometric constraint equation of drops, leading to an establishment of analytical models. FindingsThis study presented a unified approach for deriving analytical models of contact angle hysteresis for various wetting systems, including drops on smooth homogeneous surfaces, Cassie drops on micropillared and micropored homogeneous surfaces, and Wenzel drops on micropillared homogeneous surfaces. The established models revealed a significant impact of frictional tension, and of the change in free energy during drop motion, on the free energy barriers. These models were fully derived thermodynamically without subsequent theoretical modifications and found to agree well with experimental results. Some of the models in this study were validated using other existing models, despite the models having been developed using completely different approaches.

Structural, electrical and magnetic studies on Zn doped MnFe2O4 nanoparticles with via Sol-Gel approach

A manganese ferrite (MnFe2O4) nanoparticle is prepared through sol-gel method. The various concentration of Zn (x = 0.0, 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, 0.9) was added to the initial solutions. Through X-Ray diffraction examinations results confirmed the cubic spinel structure of Mn1-xZnxFe2O4 and have larger crystallite size. The functional analysis is obtained through Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis and it is indicated that Fe-O, Mn-O, and Zn-O vibrational bands. The optical analysis carried out through UV–visible spectrometer. The surface features with morphology and its content of elements in the samples were found through scanning electron microscope (SEM) with energy dispersive (EDAX) analysis. The energy analysis carried out through Xray Photo electro absorption (XPS) analysis. The detailed magnetic characteristics of the resulting samples such as cohersivity (Hc), magnetization (Ms), retentivity (Hr), squareness ratio (SQR) and anisotripic constant (Ki) were found through vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM), shows good magnetic property, multi grain wall and the strong dependents of Zn . The dielectric related parameters like dielectric constant for real and imaginary components, loss tangent with AC conductivity with respect to applied frequency are enhanced dielectric constant and at the same time it reduces the dielectric loss tangent discussed through LCR measurement. The electrochemical behaviour of the samples was tested through cyclic voltameter setup. Finally, concluded with their merits and demerits.

Ion specificity on cysteine tripeptides in aqueous environments revealed by molecular simulation

Molecular dynamics simulations were conducted to investigate the interactions of cysteine tripeptides with ions and water molecules in solutions of salts (MA, M = Li+ and Cs+, A = halide ions). The results revealed that as the anion size increases, cations aggregate more easily around the tripeptide, irrespective of capping. Radial distribution function (RDF) analysis showed direct interactions between F− and tricysteine, whereas Cl−, Br−, and I− exhibited indirect binding. Comparison between Li+ and Cs+ systems indicated that the smaller Li+ ions tend to distribute more around the tripeptide, engaging in direct interactions, whereas Cs+ ions interact indirectly, mediated by water molecules. Interaction energy analysis demonstrated that in lithium salt solutions, the total energy of anions with tricysteine decreased with anion size for both capped and uncapped systems. In cesium salt solutions, the anionic I− had the strongest interaction with cysteine tripeptides, and the cationic Cs+ interaction with tripeptides peaked in the CsI solution. The results highlight differences in ionic interactions depending on the anion-cation correlations of different salts.

Insights into gypsum and silica scaling behaviors of dense Janus membranes in membrane distillation: The effect of varied surface properties

Dense Janus membranes (JMs) have emerged as potential candidates to address the tough scaling issue in hypersaline wastewater treatments for membrane distillation (MD). However, behaviors and mechanisms of various scalants on dense JMs have not been systematically investigated. Herein, we designed three dense JMs to simultaneously compare their anti-scaling properties against gypsum and silica in MD and focus on the critical role of varied surface property in scaling control. Results showed that dense JMs with highly positive gypsum-membrane interfacial energy and with strong electrical repulsion against silica species were more effective in resisting gypsum and silica, respectively. Scaled membrane characterization, quartz crystal microbalance monitoring, interfacial energy analysis and AFM force measurement revealed the distinct anti-scaling mechanisms. Highly hydrophilic surfaces without specific interactions with scaling ions provided robust thermodynamic barriers and less kinetically affected local supersaturations, preventing gypsum nucleation and growth. In contrast, positively charged surfaces favorably attracted negatively charged silica species with high reactivity, promoting subsequent polymerization with silicic acid that kinetically dominated silica scaling. Moreover, coexisting oversaturated gypsum and silica influenced the scaling behavior of each other, and surface properties of the preferentially formed scaled layer might also matter in scaling process. This study shall provide useful insights into the anti-scaling mechanisms of dense JMs in MD and highlight the potential of dense surface design as an effective scaling control strategy to pave the way for potential MD applications.

Thermodynamic performance analysis of a new air energy storage multigeneration system

This paper proposes a chemical looping hydrogen generation-solid oxide fuel cell combined cooling, heating, and power system that utilizes compressed air energy storage and liquefied natural gas, aiming to address the issues of instability in renewable energy power generation and waste of liquefied natural gas cold energy. The scheme achieves CO2 capture and efficient power generation while also addressing grid fluctuations and the utilization of waste cold energy. The compressed air energy storage system is employed to supply air centrally, eliminating the power consumption of traditional air compressors while improving discharging efficiency. Aspen Plus software and embedded Fortran are used for system simulation. The system is comprehensively evaluated through energy analysis, exergy analysis, and sensitivity analysis. The results indicate that the discharging efficiency, energy round-trip efficiency, and round-trip electrical efficiency are 87.56%, 81.57%, and 67.82%, respectively. The purity of CO2 capture is 99.72%. Sensitivity analysis indicates that the outlet pressure of the air storage tank and fuel flow are the main influencing parameters for system performance. Increasing the fuel flow can effectively enhance system power output, but efficiency will decrease. The outlet pressure primarily influences the power output of the gas turbine and discharging time. Overall, this system provides theoretical guidance and new ideas for efficient energy utilization.

Design, Synthesis, Anti-Cancer, Anti-Inflammatory and In Silico Studies of 3-Substituted-2-Oxindole Derivatives.

This study focuses on the design and synthesis of 3-substituted-2-oxindole derivatives aimed at developing dual-active molecules with anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory properties. The molecules were designed with diverse structural and functional features while adhering to Lipinski, Veber, and Leeson criteria. Physicochemical properties were assessed using SWISSADME to ensure drug-likeness and favourable pharmacokinetics. Multistep synthetic procedures were employed for molecule synthesis. In vitro evaluations confirmed the dual activity of the derivatives, with specific emphasis on the significance of dialkyl aminomethyl substitutions for potency against various cell lines. 4 a exhibited GI50 value 3.00E-05 against MDA-MB-231, 4 b has shown GI50 value 2E-05 against MDA-MB-231, 4 c has shown GI50 value 6E-05 against VERO, 4 d has shown GI50 value 8E-05 each against both the MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 and 4 e has shown GI50 values 2E-05 and 5E-05 each against both the MCF-7 and VERO. The analysis indicates that compounds 3 c (71.19 %), 3 e (66.84 %), and 3 g (63.04 %) exhibited significant anti-inflammatory activity. Additionally, in silico binding free energy analysis and interaction studies revealed significant correlations between in vitro and computational data, identifying compounds 4 d, 4 e, 3 b, 3 i, and 3 e as promising candidates. Key residues such as Glu917, Cys919, Lys920, Glu850, Lys838, and Asp1046 were found to play critical roles in ligand binding and kinase inhibition, providing valuable insights for designing potent VEGFR2 inhibitors. The Quantum Mechanics-based Independent Gradient Model analysis further highlighted the electronic interaction landscape, showing larger attractive peaks and higher electron density gradients for compounds 4 d and 4 e compared to Sunitinib, suggesting stronger and more diverse attractive forces. These findings support the potential of these compounds for further development and optimization in anticancer drug design.

Improving the Accuracy in the Prediction of Transition-Metal Spin-State Energetics Using a Robust Variation-Based Approach: Density Functional Theory, CASPT2 and MC-PDFT Applied to the Case Study of Tris-Diimine Fe(II) Complexes.

Designing ligands for transition metal complexes with a specified low-spin, high-spin or spin-crossover behavior is challenging. A major advance was recently made by Phan et al. [J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2017, 139, 6437-6447] who showed that the spin state of a homoleptic tris-diimine Fe(II) complex can be predicted from the N-N distance in the free diimine. They could thus predict the change in magnetic behavior on passing from the complexes of 2,2'-bipyridine (bpy), 2,2'-biimidazole (bim) and 2,2'-bis-2-imidazoline (bimz) ligands to those obtained with the modified analogs 4,5-diazafluoren-9-one (dafo), 1,1'-(α,α'-o-xylyl)-2,2'-bisimidazole (xbim) and 2,3,5,6,8,9-hexahydrodiimidazo[1,2-a:2', 1'-c]pyrazine (etbimz), respectively. Theoretically, the challenge lies in the accurate determination of the HS-LS zero-point energy difference ΔEHL°. The issue can be circumvented by using a variation-based approach, wherein ΔEHL° is not directly evaluated but obtained from the estimate of its variation Δ(ΔEHL°) in series of related systems, which include one whose ΔEHL° is accurately known [Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 2013, 15, 3752-3763; J. Phys. Chem. A 2022, 126, 6221-6235]. In this study, density functional theory (DFT), second-order multireference perturbation theory in its CASPT2 formulation, multiconfigurational pair DFT (MC-PDFT) and its hybrid formulation (HMC-PDFT) have been applied to the determination of Δ(ΔEHL°) in the pairs of complexes , , , and , . In DFT, we used several semilocal functionals and their global hybrids, as well as their D2, D3, D3BJ and D4 dispersion-corrected forms; and in MC-PDFT, different translated and fully translated functionals. The results are consistent with one another and in very good agreement with experiments. They show small to vanishing dependence on key details of the methods used: namely, the exact-exchange contribution to global hybrids; the ionization potential-electron affinity shift and basis sets used in the CASPT2 calculations; and the active spaces employed for the CASSCF wave functions used in the MC-PDFT and HMC-PDFT calculations. Insights into the change in the spin-state energetics accompanying the ligand exchanges were gained through a complexation energy analysis. Using the accurate CCSD(T) estimate of the HS-LS adiabatic energy difference in [J. Chem. Theory Comput. 2012, 8, 4216-4231], the Δ(ΔEHL°)-approach has been applied to the determination of ΔEHL° in the diimine complexes. The CASPT2 and DFT-D2 methods only give results in agreement with experiments. This suggests for the other methods a limitation in their treatment of dispersion which prevents them from accurately describing the spin-state energetics change accompanying the passing from with the tetragonal arrangement of its nitrile ligands to the tris-diimine complexes with the trigonal packing of their bulkier ligands.

Molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulation studies reveal repurposing I-Motif ligand as a promising protease inhibitor against SARS-CoV-2 variants

ABSTRACT The COVID-19 caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus has escalated into a global pandemic, urgently necessitating effective treatments. Tremendous research of the SARS-CoV-2 main protease have enabled insight understanding of its mechanism and potential inhibitors. Due to its crucial role in viral replication, the protease is considered an attractive target for antiviral therapy. This study aimed to identify novel potent inhibitors of main protease protein by repurposing i-Motif (iM) binding compounds from the G4LDB database. iM ligands are known for their ability to stabilise iM structures in DNA, and their repurposing as protein inhibitors is an alternative therapeutic approach. To achieve this, we performed in silico studies with six iM binding compounds. Molecular docking, molecular dynamics (MD) simulations and MM/GBSA binding free energy analysis revealed favourable conformational stability and superior binding affinity of the three proposed iM ligands, including iML0042 (−59.91 ± 3.82 kcal/mol), iML0043 (−56.37 ± 3.87 kcal/mol), and iML0094 (−84.68 ± 3.40 kcal/mol), to SARS-CoV-2 Mpro variants compared to the reference inhibitor nirmatrelvir (−34.35 ± 3.74 kcal/mol). The results suggested that repurposing iM ligands as protease inhibitors is a promising strategy. Our findings revealed significant candidate inhibitors and are recommended for further development as potential protease inhibitors against SARS-CoV-2.

Energy and exergy analysis of conventional and modified flat-plate solar collector with dual spiral flow tubes: A comparative study

ABSTRACT The most fundamental collectors for water heating are flat plate solar collectors (FPSCs). They are inexpensive, simple to build, and need little maintenance. Conventional FPSCs have relatively low efficiency. More study is needed to increase the efficiency of FPSC by using novel designs. To enhance thermal performance, various strategies have been implemented through design modifications of flow tubes. In this study, dual spiral-shaped flow tubes were constructed instead of the usual FPSCs number of riser tubes and headers and tested with three different mass flow rates (20.9, 29.9, and 42.1 l/h). The optimum instantaneous efficiency achieved is 70.8% at a flow rate of 42.1 l/h, representing a 13.7% improvement in efficiency compared to the conventional collector and lowering the mass flow rate results in an enhanced exergy efficiency of 3.51% at 20.9 l/h. The modified collector achieves its highest instantaneous efficiency when the outlet water temperature is measured at 53.4°C. The modified collector boosts heat transfers by enlarging the water’s surface contact area and prolonging its flow time, resulting in greater heat absorption and significantly improved efficiency. When all other parameters are kept the same as in a conventional design, highly encouraging results in a modified collector have been recorded.