Endogenous Neuroprotection Research Articles

Ontogeny of inter-alpha inhibitor protein (IAIP) expression in human brain.

Inter-alpha inhibitor proteins (IAIPs) are naturally occurring immunomodulatory molecules found in most tissues. We have reported ontogenic changes in the expression of IAIPs in brain during development in sheep and abundant expression of IAIPs in fetal and neonatal rodent brain in a variety of cellular types and brain regions. Although a few studies identified bikunin, light chain of IAIPs, in adult human brain, the presence of the complete endogenous IAIP protein complex has not been reported in human brain. In this study, we examined the immunohistochemical expression of endogenous IAIPs in human cerebral cortex from early in development through the neonatal period and in adults using well-preserved postmortem brains. We examined total, nuclear, and cytoplasmic staining of endogenous IAIPs and their expression in neurofilament light polypeptide-positive neurons and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-positive astrocytes. IAIPs were ubiquitously detected for the first time in cerebral cortical cells at 24-26, 27-28, 29-36, and 37-40weeks of gestation and in adults. Quantitative analyses revealed that IAIPs were predominately localized in the nucleus in all age groups, but cytoplasmic IAIP expression was more abundant in adult than in the younger ages. Immunoreactivity of IAIPs was expressed in neurons and astrocytes in all age groups. In addition, IAIP co-localization with GFAP-positive astrocytes was more abundant in adults than in the developing brain. We conclude that IAIPs exhibit ubiquitous expression, and co-localize with neurons and astrocytes in the developing and adult human brain suggesting a potential role for IAIPs in development and endogenous neuroprotection.

N-myc downstream-regulated gene 2 deficiency aggravates memory impairment in Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a chronic degenerative disease of the central nervous system and the most common dementia type in elderly people. N-myc downstream-regulated gene 2 (NDRG2), a cell stress response gene, is primarily expressed in astrocytes in mammalian brains. The hippocampal protein levels of NDRG2 in AD patients were significantly higher than those in healthy peers. However, whether the increase in NDRG2 is involved in the development of AD or is an endogenous protective response initiated by stress remains unknown. Here, we investigated the roles of NDRG2 in the development of memory impairment in AD using mouse models established by amyloid β injection or crossing of APP/PS1 mice. We found that NDRG2 deficiency worsened the memory impairment in AD mice. In addition, NDRG2 deletion induced downregulation of the proteasome functional subunit PSMB6 in AD mice. These findings suggest that NDRG2 is an endogenous neuroprotectant that participates in the pathological course of waste-clearing impairment and memory damage in AD. NDRG2 may be a therapeutic target for the intervention of AD memory degradation.

Нові мішені фармакологічної корекції когнітивних розладів за умов пренатальної дії гіпоксії

В огляді наведено сучасні концепції механізмів пошкоджень клітин головного мозку за умов пренатального впливу хронічної гіпоксії. На основі сучасних даних про механізми адаптації організму до стану гіпоксії пропонуються нові перспективні напрями пошуку ефективних лікарських засобів для фармакологічної корекції наслідків пренатальної гіпоксії. Пренатальна гіпоксія є найпоширенішою причиною смертності та інвалідності новонароджених дітей. Хронічна пренатальна гіпоксія призводить до значних змін у розвитку когнітивних функцій у постнатальному періоді життя, які базуються на морфологічних змінах у структурах мозку, що беруть участь у навчанні та пам'яті. Результати досліджень останніх років внесли великий вклад у розкриття механізмів формування стану гіпоксії різного генезу та індукованих нею порушень метаболічних і функціональних процесів на рівні клітини й субклітинних структур. Визначено ряд морфофункціональних детермінант (специфічні рецептори, регуляторні білки, внутрішньоклітинні ферменти, мітохондріальні іонні канали і т. д.), які беруть безпосередню участь у розвитку термінової та довготривалої адаптації клітини й усього організму до гіпоксії. Аналіз літератури з досліджень молекулярних механізмів дії пренатальної гіпоксії показав, що основою гіпоксичних уражень головного мозку новонароджених є каскад біохімічних і молекулярних процесів, що призводять до ексайтотоксичності, окиснювального та нітрозуючого стресів і запалення. Одночасно з цим за гіпоксії починають функціонувати й компенсаторно­пристосувальні механізми, що підвищують стійкість організму до дефіциту кисню. В огляді особливу увагу приділено обговоренню даних щодо ролі молекулярних детермінант ендогенної нейропротекції, таких як HSP70 і HIF­1a. Транскрипційна система HIF­1 є ключовим регулятором адаптивних механізмів відповідей на гіпоксію на локальному та системному рівнях. Зміни в експресії генів HIF­1 у пренатальному розвитку запускають епігенетичні механізми, що призводять до негативних змін у розвитку нервової системи. Важливим компонентом системи ендогенної нейропротекції є сімейство білків теплового шоку HSP70, які сприяють широкому спектру процесів фолдингу, рефолдингу білків, мембранній транслокації органелярних і секреторних білків, а також здійснюють контроль за активністю регуляторних білків. Вплив HSP на стабілізацію HIF­1 забезпечує активацію процесів проліферації, апоптозу, ангіогенезу за умов гіпоксії. Білки HSP70 / HIF­1a­ системи можуть бути специфічними мішенями для впливу фармакологічних агентів з метою регуляції процесів адаптації організму до гіпоксії. Тому пошук нових ефективних нейропротекторних засобів повинен бути спрямований на активацію HSP70/HIF­1a­системи та використання агентів, здатних забезпечувати модуляцію генів, що кодують синтез білків HSP70 і HIF­1a.

Endogenous neuroprotective potential due to preconditioning exercise in stroke.

Stroke is a leading cause of serious long-term physical disability due to insufficient neurorepair mechanisms. In general, physical activity is an important modifiable risk factor, particularly for stroke and cardiovascular diseases. Physical exercise has shown to be neuroprotective in both animal experiments and clinical settings. Exercise can be considered a mild stressor and follows the prototypical preconditioning stimulus. It has beneficial effects on brain health and cognitive function. Preconditioning exercise, which is prophylactic exercise prior to ischemia, can protect the brain from subsequent serious injury through promotion of angiogenesis, mediation of inflammatory responses, inhibition of glutamate over-activation, protection of the blood-brain barrier, and inhibition of apoptosis. Preconditioning exercise appears to induce brain ischemic tolerance and it has been shown to exert beneficial effects. It is clinically safe and feasible and represents an exciting new paradigm in endogenous neuroprotection for patients with acute stroke. In this review, we describe the neuroprotective potential of preconditioning exercise and clinical applications in patients with acute ischemic stroke.

A longitudinal multimodal in vivo molecular imaging study of the 3xTg-AD mouse model shows progressive early hippocampal and taurine loss.

The understanding of the natural history of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and temporal trajectories of in vivo molecular mechanisms requires longitudinal approaches. A behavioral and multimodal imaging study was performed at 4/8/12 and 16 months of age in a triple transgenic mouse model of AD (3xTg-AD). Behavioral assessment included the open field and novel object recognition tests. Molecular characterization evaluated hippocampal levels of amyloid β (Aβ) and hyperphosphorylated tau. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) included assessment of hippocampal structural integrity, blood–brain barrier (BBB) permeability and neurospectroscopy to determine levels of the endogenous neuroprotector taurine. Longitudinal brain amyloid accumulation was assessed using 11C Pittsburgh compound B positron emission tomography (PET), and neuroinflammation/microglia activation was investigated using 11C-PK1195. We found altered locomotor activity at months 4/8 and 16 months and recognition memory impairment at all time points. Substantial early reduction of hippocampal volume started at month 4 and progressed over 8/12 and 16 months. Hippocampal taurine levels were significantly decreased in the hippocampus at months 4/8 and 16. No differences were found for amyloid and neuroinflammation with PET, and BBB was disrupted only at month 16. In summary, 3xTg-AD mice showed exploratory and recognition memory impairments, early hippocampal structural loss, increased Aβ and hyperphosphorylated tau and decreased levels of taurine. In sum, the 3xTg-AD animal model mimics pathological and neurobehavioral features of AD, with early-onset recognition memory loss and MRI-documented hippocampal damage. The early-onset profile suggests temporal windows and opportunities for therapeutic intervention, targeting endogenous neuroprotectors such as taurine.

The role of endogenous tissue-type plasminogen activator in neuronal survival after ischemic stroke: friend or foe?

Endogenous protease tissue-type plasminogen activator (tPA) has highly efficient fibrinolytic activity and its recombinant variants alteplase and tenecteplase are established as highly effective thrombolytic drugs for ischemic stroke. Endogenous tPA is constituted of five functional domains through which it interacts with a variety of substrates, binding proteins and receptors, thus having enzymatic and cytokine-like effects to act on all cell types of the brain. In the past 2decades, numerous studies have explored the clinical relevance of endogenous tPA in neurological diseases, especially in ischemic stroke. tPA is released from many cells within the brain parenchyma exposed to ischemia conditions in vitro and in vivo, which is believed to control neuronal fate. Some studies proved that tPA could induce blood-brain barrier disruption, neural excitotoxicity and inflammation, while others indicated that tPA also has anti-excitotoxic, neurotrophic and anti-apoptotic effects on neurons. Therefore, more work is needed to elucidate how tPA mediates such opposing functions that may amplify tPA from a therapeutic means into a key therapeutic target in endogenous neuroprotection after stroke. In this review, we summarize the biological characteristics and pleiotropic functions of tPA in the brain. Then we focus on possible hypotheses about why and how endogenous tPA mediates ischemic neuronal death and survival. Finally, we analyze how endogenous tPA affects neuron fate in ischemic stroke in a comprehensive view.

The regulatory role of Toll-like receptors after ischemic stroke: neurosteroids as TLR modulators with the focus on TLR2/4.

Ischemic stroke is the most common cerebrovascular disease and considered as a worldwide leading cause of death. After cerebral ischemia, different pathophysiological processes including neuroinflammation, invasion and aggregation of inflammatory cells and up-regulation of cytokines occur simultaneously. In this respect, Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are the first identified important mediators for the activation of the innate immune system and are widely expressed in glial cells and neurons following brain trauma. TLRs are also able to interact with endogenous and exogenous molecules released during ischemia and can increase tissue damage. Particularly, TLR2 and TLR4 activate different downstream inflammatory signaling pathways. In addition, TLR signaling can alternatively play a role for endogenous neuroprotection. In this review, the gene and protein structures, common genetic polymorphisms of TLR2 and TLR4, TLR-related molecular pathways and their putative role after ischemic stroke are delineated. Furthermore, the relationship between neurosteroids and TLRs as neuroprotective mechanism is highlighted in the context of brain ischemia.

Rapamycin in ischemic stroke: Old drug, new tricks?

The significant morbidity that accompanies stroke makes it one of the world's most devastating neurological disorders. Currently, proven effective therapies have been limited to thrombolysis and thrombectomy. The window for the administration of these therapies is narrow, hampered by the necessity of rapidly imaging patients. A therapy that could extend this window by protecting neurons may improve outcome. Endogenous neuroprotection has been shown to be, in part, due to changes in mTOR signalling pathways and the instigation of productive autophagy. Inducing this effect pharmacologically could improve clinical outcomes. One such therapy already in use in transplant medicine is the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin. Recent evidence suggests that rapamycin is neuroprotective, not only via neuronal autophagy but also through its broader effects on other cells of the neurovascular unit. This review highlights the potential use of rapamycin as a multimodal therapy, acting on the blood–brain barrier, cerebral blood flow and inflammation, as well as directly on neurons. There is significant potential in applying this old drug in new ways to improve functional outcomes for patients after stroke.

Caffeine Modulates Spontaneous Adenosine and Oxygen Changes during Ischemia and Reperfusion.

Adenosine is an endogenous neuroprotectant that modulates vasodilation in the central nervous system. Oxygen changes occur when there is an increase in local cerebral blood flow and thus are a measure of vasodilation. Transient oxygen events following rapid adenosine events have been recently discovered, but the relationship between adenosine and blood flow change during ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) has not been characterized. Caffeine is a nonselective adenosine receptor antagonist that can modulate the effects of adenosine in the brain, but how it affects adenosine and oxygen levels during I/R is also unknown. In this study, extracellular changes in adenosine and oxygen were simultaneously monitored using fast-scan cyclic voltammetry during bilateral common carotid artery occlusion (BCCAO) and the effects of a specific A2A antagonist, SCH 442416, or general antagonist, caffeine, were studied. Measurements were made in the caudate-putamen for 1 h of normoxia, followed by 30 min of BCCAO and 30 min of reperfusion. The frequency and number of both adenosine and oxygen transient events significantly increased during I/R. The specific A2A antagonist, SCH 442416 (3 mg/kg, i.p.), eliminated the increase in adenosine and oxygen events caused by I/R. The general adenosine receptor antagonist, caffeine (100 mg/kg, i.p.), decreased the frequency of adenosine and oxygen transient events during I/R. These results demonstrate that, during BCCAO, there are more rapid release events of the neuromodulator adenosine and correlated local oxygen changes, and these rapid, local effects are dampened by caffeine and other A2A antagonists.

P58IPK Is an Endogenous Neuroprotectant for Retinal Ganglion Cells.

p58IPK is an endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-resident chaperone playing a critical role in facilitating protein folding and protein homeostasis. Previously, we have demonstrated that p58IPK is expressed broadly in retinal neurons including retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and loss of p58IPK results in age-related RGC degeneration. In the present study, we investigate the role of p58IPK in neuroprotection by in vitro and in vivo studies using primary RGC culture and two well-established disease-relevant RGC injury models: retinal ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) and microbead-induced ocular hypertension. Our results demonstrate that in both in vivo models, p58IPK −/− mice exhibit significantly increased RGC loss compared to wild type (WT) mice. In vitro, p58IPK-deficient RGCs show reduced viability and are more susceptible to cell death induced by the ER stress inducer tunicamycin (TM). Overexpression of p58IPK by adeno-associated virus (AAV) significantly diminishes TM-induced cell death in both WT and p58IPK −/− RGCs. Interestingly, we find that loss of p58IPK leads to reduced mRNA expression, but not the protein level, of mesencephalic astrocyte-derived neurotrophic factor (MANF), a neurotrophic factor that resides in the ER. Treatment with recombinant MANF protein protects R28 retinal neural cells and mouse retinal explants from TM-induced cell death. Taken together, our study suggests that p58IPK functions as an endogenous neuroprotectant for RGCs. The mechanisms underlying p58IPK’s neuroprotective action and the potential interactions between p58IPK and MANF warrant future investigation.

Peripheral T Cell Depletion by FTY720 Exacerbates Hypoxic-Ischemic Brain Injury in Neonatal Mice.

Hypoxic-ischemic injury to the developing brain remains a major cause of significant long-term morbidity and mortality. Emerging evidence from neonatal brain injury models suggests a detrimental role for peripheral lymphocytes. The immunomodulatory substance FTY720, a sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor agonist, was shown to reduce adult ischemia-induced neurodegeneration through its lymphopenic mode of action. In the present study, we hypothesized that FTY720 promotes neuroprotection by reducing peripheral lymphocytes and their infiltration into the injured neonatal brain. Term-born equivalent postnatal day 9 C57BL/6 mice were exposed to hypoxia ischemia (HI) followed by a single injection of 1 mg/kg FTY720 or vehicle (0.9% sodium chloride). Brain injury, microglia, and endothelial activation were assessed 7 days post HI using histology and western blot. Peripheral and cerebral leukocyte subsets were analyzed by multichannel flow cytometry. Whether FTY720s’ effects could be attributed to its lymphopenic mode of action was determined in T cell-depleted mice. In contrast to our hypothesis, FTY720 exacerbated HI-induced neuropathology including loss of gray and white matter structures. While microglia and endothelial activation remained unchanged, FTY720 induced a strong and sustained depletion of peripheral T cells resulting in significantly reduced cerebral infiltration of CD4 T cells. CD4 T cell subset analysis revealed that circulating regulatory and effector T cells counts were similarly decreased after FTY720 treatment. However, since neonatal HI per se induces a selective infiltration of Foxp3 positive regulatory T cells compared to Foxp3 negative effector T cells effects of FTY720 on cerebral regulatory T cell infiltration were more pronounced than on effector T cells. Reductions in T lymphocytes, and particularly regulatory T cells coincided with an increased infiltration of innate immune cells, mainly neutrophils and inflammatory macrophages. Importantly anti-CD3-mediated T cell depletion resulted in a similar exacerbation of brain injury, which was not further enhanced by an additional FTY720 treatment. In summary, peripheral T cell depletion by FTY720 resulted in increased infiltration of innate immune cells concomitant to reduced T cell infiltration and exacerbation HI-induced brain injury. This study indicates that neonatal T cells may promote endogenous neuroprotection in the term-born equivalent hypoxic-ischemic brain potentially providing new opportunities for therapeutic intervention.

Damage-associated molecular pattern recognition is required for induction of retinal neuroprotective pathways in a sex-dependent manner

Retinal degeneration is a common cause of irreversible blindness and is caused by the death of retinal light-sensitive neurons called photoreceptors. At the onset of degeneration, stressed photoreceptors cause retinal glial cells to secrete neuroprotective factors that slow the pace of degeneration. Leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) is one such factor that is required for endogenous neuroprotection. Photoreceptors are known to release signals of cellular stress, called damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) early in degeneration, and we hypothesized that receptors for DAMPs or pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) play a key role in the induction of LIF and neuroprotective stress responses in retinal glial cells. Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) is a well-established DAMP receptor. In our experiments, activation of TLR2 protected both male and female mice from light damage, while the loss of TLR2 in female mice did not impact photoreceptor survival. In contrast, induction of protective stress responses, microglial phenotype and photoreceptor survival were strongly impacted in male TLR2−/− mice. Lastly, using publicly available gene expression data, we show that TLR2 is expressed highly in resting microglia prior to injury, but is also induced in Müller cells in inherited retinal degeneration.

Neuroglobin mediates neuroprotection of hypoxic postconditioning against transient global cerebral ischemia in rats through preserving the activity of Na+/K+ ATPases

Hypoxic postconditioning (HPC) is an innovative neuroprotective strategy with cytoprotective effects on the hippocampal neurons against transient global cerebral ischemia (tGCI) in adult rats. However, its molecular mechanisms have not yet been adequately elucidated. Neuroglobin (Ngb) is an endogenous neuroprotectant with hypoxia-inducible property, and its role in experimental stroke has been increasingly attractive. Hence, the purpose of this study is to explore the involvement of Ngb in HPC-mediated neuroprotection and to further investigate its underlying molecular mechanism. We found that HPC increased Ngb expression in CA1 subregion after tGCI. Also, the inhibition of Ngb expression with Ngb antisense oligodeoxynucleotide (AS-ODNs) eliminated the neuroprotective effect mediated by HPC, whereas overexpression of Ngb ameliorated neuronal damage in CA1 after tGCI, indicating that HPC conferred neuroprotective effects via upregulation of Ngb. We further showed that HPC increased the membranous level of Na+/K+ ATPases β1 subunit (Atp1b1) in CA1 after tGCI. Furthermore, we demonstrated that Ngb upregulation in CA1 after HPC maintained the membranous level of Atp1b1 through Ngb–Atp1b1 interaction and reduced the glutathionylation of membranous Atp1b1 via suppression of reactive oxygen species (ROS), ultimately preserving the activity of NKA. Taken together, these data indicate that Ngb is involved in the neuroprotection of HPC against tGCI via maintenance of NKA activity in the hippocampal CA1.

Amyloid-beta Induction of PIAS1 Ser-503 Phosphorylation and Elk-1 SUMOylation Mediate Endogenous Neuroprotection against Amyloid-beta Toxicity (P2.188)

Amyloid-beta Induction of PIAS1 Ser-503 Phosphorylation and Elk-1 SUMOylation Mediate Endogenous Neuroprotection against Amyloid-beta Toxicity (P2.188)

Pentose phosphate pathway activation via HSP27 phosphorylation by ATM kinase: A putative endogenous antioxidant defense mechanism during cerebral ischemia-reperfusion

Molecular mechanism underlying ischemic stroke remains poorly understood. We previously reported glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) activity in pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) is activated via heat shock protein 27 (HSP27) phosphorylation at serine 85 (S85) by ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM) kinase during cerebral ischemia. This mechanism seems to be endogenous antioxidative system. To determine whether this system also works during reperfusion, we performed comparative metabolic analysis of reperfusion effect on metabolism in rat cortex using middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). Metabolic profiling using gas-chromatography/mass-spectrometry analysis showed changes in metabolic state that depended on reperfusion time. Enrichment analysis showed PPP was significantly upregulated during ischemia-reperfusion. Significant increases in fructose 6-phosphate and ribulose 5-phosphate after reperfusion also suggested enhancement of PPP. In relation to PPP, ischemia-reperfusion induced an increase of up to 69-fold in HSP27 transcripts after 24-h reperfusion. Immunoblotting showed gradual increase in HSP27 protein and marked increase in HSP27 phosphorylation (S85) that were time-dependent (4.5-fold after 24-h reperfusion). G6PD activity was significantly elevated after 1-h MCAO (20%), reduced after 1-h reperfusion, increased gradually thereafter and significantly elevated after 24-h reperfusion. The NADPH/NAD+ ratio displayed similar increasing pattern. Intracerebroventricular injection of ATM kinase inhibitor (KU-55933) significantly reduced HSP27 phosphorylation and G6PD activity, significantly increased protein carbonyl, and resulted in increase in infarct size (100%) 24-h after reperfusion following 90-min MCAO. Consequently, G6PD activation via HSP27 phosphorylation by ATM kinase may be part of endogenous antioxidant defense neuroprotection mechanism that is activated during ischemia-reperfusion. These findings have important implications for treatment of stroke.

Abstract WP262: Neuroglobin Mediates Neuroprotection of Hypoxic Postconditioning Against Transient Global Cerebral Ischemia in Rats via Preserving the Activity of Na + /K + ATPases

Introduction: Hypoxic postconditioning (HPC) is an innovative neuroprotective strategy with pro-survival effects on hippocampal neurons against transient global cerebral ischemia (tGCI), but the mechanisms have not yet been completely elucidated. Neuroglobin (Ngb) is an endogenous neuroprotectant with hypoxia-inducible property whose role in experimental stroke has increasingly been attractive. In this study, we explored the role and underlying mechanism of Ngb in HPC-mediated neuroprotection after tGCI. Methods: HPC was carried out with air containing 8% O 2 and 92% N 2 24 h after 10 min tGCI induced by a four-vessel occlusion method in adult male Wistar rats. The level of Ngb and Na + /K + ATPases β1 subunit (Atp1b1) were measured by immunohistochemistry, western blot and immunofluorescence after tGCI and HPC with or without the administration of Ngb antisense oligodeoxynucleotide (AS-ODNs) and lentivirus. Then reactive oxygen species (ROS) was detected via DCFH-DA and immunoprecipitation was performed to measure the glutathionylation of Atp1b1. Finally, the activity of Na + /K + ATPases (NKA) was detected by a Na + K + -ATPase assay kit. Results: HPC increased Ngb expression in CA1 subregion after tGCI. Inhibition of Ngb expression with Ngb AS-ODNs abolished HPC-mediated neuroprotection, whereas overexpression of Ngb ameliorated neuronal damage in hippocampal CA1 subregion after tGCI, confirming that Ngb upregulation is involved in the neuroprotection of HPC against tGCI. Similar to the tendency of Ngb expression, the membranous level of Atp1b1, a Ngb-interacting protein, reduced after tGCI while increased after HPC. Notably, knockdown of Ngb reversed the increase of membranous Atp1b1 mediated by HPC, whereas Ngb overexpression induced an opposite result. Furthermore, we found that Ngb upregulation after HPC maintained membranous Atp1b1 through the direct Ngb-Atp1b1 interaction and reduced the glutathionylation of membranous Atp1b1 via suppression of ROS, finally enhancing the activity of NKA. Conclusions: Our results suggested that Ngb preserved the activity of NKA after tGCI via its regulation on both the level and the glutathionylation of membranous Atp1b1, which contributed to HPC-mediated neuroprotection against tGCI.

Abstract 30: Upregulation of Pentose Phosphate Pathway after Focal Cerebral Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury in Rat Cerebral Cortex: The Impact of Heat Shock Protein 27 Phosphorylation

Introduction: We previously reported glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) in pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) is activated via heat shock protein 27 (HSP27) phosphorylation by ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM) kinase during cerebral ischemia. However, it is unknown whether this potential endogenous anti-oxidative system also works during reperfusion. Thus, we performed a comparative metabolic analysis of the effects of reperfusion in rat cerebral cortex, using middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). Methods: After the desired period of reperfusion (0, 1, 3, 5, 24-h) following 1-h MCAO (n = 6/group), the rats were sacrificed. Ninety-six metabolites were measured by gas-chromatography/mass-spectrometry (GC/MS), and were analyzed using multivariate statistics. The associated specific metabolic enzymes were further investigated. Results: GC/MS showed changes in metabolic states in reperfusion-time-dependent manner ( Fig. 1A ). Enrichment analysis showed PPP was most significantly upregulated during ischemia-reperfusion. In relation to PPP, ischemia-reperfusion induced increase of HSP27 mRNA (69-fold) over time of reperfusion. Immunoblotting showed a slow increase in HSP27 protein and a marked increase in HSP27 phosphorylation (4.5-fold) in reperfusion-time-dependent manner ( Fig. 1B ). G6PD activity was significantly elevated after 1-h MCAO (20%), reduced after 1-h reperfusion, thereafter gradually elevated. Increasing pattern of the NADPH/NADP+ ratio was similar. Furthermore, intracerebroventricular injection of ATM kinase inhibitor (KU-55933) significantly increased the infarct size (50%) after 24-h reperfusion following 90-min MCAO ( Fig. 1CD ). Conclusions: G6PD activation via ischemia-induced HSP27 phosphorylation by ATM kinase may be part of an endogenous antioxidant defense neuroprotection mechanism during ischemia-reperfusion. These findings have important therapeutic implications for the treatment of stroke.

Anesthetic Preconditioning as Endogenous Neuroprotection in Glaucoma.

Blindness in glaucoma is the result of death of Retinal Ganglion Cells (RGCs) and their axons. RGC death is generally preceded by a stage of reversible dysfunction and structural remodeling. Current treatments aimed at reducing intraocular pressure (IOP) are ineffective or incompletely effective in management of the disease. IOP-independent neuroprotection or neuroprotection as adjuvant to IOP lowering in glaucoma remains a challenge as effective agents without side effects have not been identified yet. We show in DBA/2J mice with spontaneous IOP elevation and glaucoma that the lifespan of functional RGCs can be extended by preconditioning RGCs with retrobulbar lidocaine in one eye at four months of age that temporary blocks RGC axonal transport. The contralateral, PBS-injected eye served as control. Lidocaine-induced impairment of axonal transport to superior colliculi was assessed by intravitreal injection of cholera toxin B. Long-term (nine months) effect of lidocaine were assessed on RGC electrical responsiveness (PERG), IOP, expression of relevant protein (BDNF, TrkB, PSD95, GFAP, Synaptophysin, and GAPDH) and RGC density. While lidocaine treatment did not alter the age-related increase of IOP, TrkB expression was elevated, GFAP expression was decreased, RGC survival was improved by 35%, and PERG function was preserved. Results suggest that the lifespan of functional RGCs in mouse glaucoma can be extended by preconditioning RGCs in early stages of the disease using a minimally invasive treatment with retrobulbar lidocaine, a common ophthalmologic procedure. Lidocaine is inexpensive, safe and is approved by Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to be administered intravenously.

Calcium-Binding Proteins Protect GABAergic Neurons of the Hippocampus from Hypoxia and Ischemia in vitro

Disturbances in cerebral blood flow cause hypoxic and ischemic processes that lead to damaging and death of neurons. Some populations of GABAergic neurons are characterized by greater sensitivity to oxygen-glucose deprivation. Massive damage and death of the cells (more than 80%) take place in hippocampal cultures during long oxygen-glucose deprivation (40 min). Astrocytes and GABAergic neurons are destroyed first, which in turn leads to the neuroglial network disturbances accompanied by massive death of glutamatergic neurons. In the present work we investigated a protective role of calcium-binding proteins (CaBPs) in the population of GABAergic neurons under hypoxic-like and ischemic-like conditions. The preconditioning was evaluated by suppression of the NMDAR activity after short-term episodes of hypoxia. The posthypoxic hyperexcitability was estimated by the appearance of synchronous spontaneous calcium impulses (s[Ca2+]i) at the reoxigenation stage. The cells damaged during hypoxia and ischemia were detected by the presence of the irreversible increase of [Ca2+]i. The type of neurons and presence of CaBPs (parvalbumin (PV), calbindin (CB), calretinin (CR)) were determined by immunohistochemistry after registration of the [Ca2+]i dynamics. We have shown that any calcium-binding protein in GABAergic neurons can play the role of an endogenous neuroprotector, which prevents calcium overload and subsequent death even without preconditioning. GABAergic neurons containing any CaBP are characterized by lower magnitudes of the calcium responses to the NMDA application. These neurons are not preconditioned by repeated short-term episodes of hypoxia. It was shown that GABAergic neurons containing CR are characterized by the absence of irreversible calcium increases and survive during oxygen-glucose deprivation. However, the presence of PV or CB can lead to the appearance of lag phases with different durations. These two CaBPs reduce the rate of calcium increase and possibly in that way prevent the death of GABAergic neurons under the ischemia-like conditions.

Increased intraocular pressure alters the cellular distribution of HuR protein in retinal ganglion cells – A possible sign of endogenous neuroprotection failure

The RNA-binding protein, HuR, modulates mRNA processing and gene expression of several stress response proteins i.e. Hsp70 and p53 that have been postulated to be involved in the pathogenesis of glaucoma, a chronic optic neuropathy leading to irreversible blindness. We evaluated HuR protein expression in retinas and optic nerves of glaucomatous rats and human primary open angle glaucoma patients and its possible impact on stress response mechanisms. We found that the cytoplasmic content of HuR was reduced more extensively in glaucomatous retinas than in optic nerves and this was linked with a declined cytoplasmic Hsp70 level and p53 nuclear translocation. In the optic nerve, the p53 content was decreased as a feature of reactive gliosis. Based on our findings, we conclude that the alteration in the HuR content, observed both in rat glaucoma model and human glaucoma samples, affects post-transcriptionally the expression of genes crucial for maintaining cell homeostasis; therefore, we postulate that HuR may be involved in the pathogenesis of glaucoma.